# PostQuantum - Quantum Computing, Quantum Security, PQC

> Preparing for the Quantum Age

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## Pages

- [Deep Dives](https://postquantum.com/deep-dives-quantum-pqc/): China is building the world’s most coordinated national quantum technology program. Not as a moonshot research project, but as an industrial...
- [PQC Migration Framework](https://postquantum.com/pqc-migration-framework-2/): Open-access 8-phase methodology for enterprise PQC migration with sector extensions. Free under CC BY 4.0 at pqcframework.com.
- [Quantum Sovereignty Book](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty-book/): Strategic leadership in the quantum era. What's at stake for nations, where the decision points are, and a concrete playbook for policymakers.
- [Deep Dive: Predicting Q-Day](https://postquantum.com/predicting-q-day/): Frameworks, forecasts, and tools for predicting when quantum computers will break cryptography — and the real deadline is already set.
- [Deep Dive: CRQC Quantum Capability Framework](https://postquantum.com/crqc-capability-framework/): The nine capabilities a quantum computer must master to break RSA-2048 — mapped, measured, and scored across modalities. Q-Day framework
- [Deep Dive: China's Quantum Ambition](https://postquantum.com/chinas-quantum-ambition/): China is building the world’s most coordinated national quantum technology program. Not as a moonshot research project, but as an industrial...
- [Deep Dive: What It Takes to Build a Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/build-quantum-computer/): Quantum computing supply chain, quantum computing system, components and modules required to build a quantum computer. Per modalities
- [Deep Dive: Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) & Quantum Open Architecture (QOA)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration-qoa/): Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) and Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) - Quantum Computing PC revolution - from monolith to modular
- [Quantum Sovereignty & the New Cold War](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty-geopolitics/): This series “Quantum Sovereignty & the New Cold War” treats sovereignty as more than a slogan. Shows how physics became geopolitical leverage
- [Quantum Systems Integration News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration-news/): PostQuantum.com - Industry News on Quantum Industry, Quantum Ecosystem, Quantum Systems Integration, Quantum Computing...
- [Quantum Sovereignty News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty-news/): PostQuantum.com - Industry News on Quantum Industry, Quantum Sovereignty, Geopolitics, Quantum Computing...
- [Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-open-architecture-qoa-news/): PostQuantum.com - Industry News on Quantum Industry, Quantum Ecosystem, Quantum Open Architecture (QOA)
- [Deep Dive: Quantum Sovereignty](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty-self-reliance/): Quantum sovereignty & the new cold war; quantum geopolitics; quantum self-reliance; quantum independence; quantum strategic autonomy
- [Quantum Physics Paper Analysis](https://postquantum.com/quantum-physics-paper-analysis/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Industry & Ecosystem News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-industry-ecosystem-news/): PostQuantum.com - Industry News on Quantum Industry, Quantum Ecosystem, Quantum Companies, Investments, Quantum Computing...
- [Quantum Research & Methods News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research-news/): PostQuantum.com - Industry News on Quantum Industry, Quantum Ecosystem, Quantum Companies, Investments, Quantum Computing...
- [Quantum Security, PQC, Post-Quantum News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-security-pqc-news/): PostQuantum.com – Industry news on Quantum Computing, Quantum Security, PQC, Post-Quantum Cryptography, Crypto-Agility
- [Quantum Systems & Engineering News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-engineering-news/): PostQuantum.com - Industry News on Quantum Industry, Quantum Ecosystem, Quantum Companies, Investments, Quantum Computing...
- [Quantum Policy, Sovereignty & Standards News](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy-regulations-news/): PostQuantum.com - Industry News on Quantum Industry, Quantum Ecosystem, Quantum Companies, Investments, Quantum Computing...
- [Deep Dive: Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC Migration](https://postquantum.com/starting-pqc-quantum-security/): Getting started with quantum security, quantum readiness, quantum resilience, quantum resistance, post-quantum, PQC migration...
- [Database of Quantum Computing Modalities](https://postquantum.com/database-quantum-computing-modalities/): Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI...
- [Database of Quantum Software Companies (2025)](https://postquantum.com/database-quantum-software-companies/): This living catalog maps the quantum software stack - from control & calibration, error correction/verification, compilers & toolchains,...
- [Database of Quantum Security Companies (2025)](https://postquantum.com/database-quantum-security-companies/): This living catalog maps the quantum‑security landscape end‑to‑end: post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) vendors...
- [Getting Started With Quantum Security and PQC Migration](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/getting-started-quantum-security-pqc/): This page collects the PostQuantum.com articles you need to kick‑off and run a quantum‑readiness program, end‑to‑end.
- [Quantum Technobabble Generator](https://postquantum.com/quantum-technobabble-generator/): I built the Quantum Technobabble Generator to have a little fun with the buzzword soup that often swirls around emerging tech
- [Quantum Ready Book](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ready-book/): The practitioner's complete guide to PQC migration. 21 chapters covering the full lifecycle from executive mandate to crypto-agility.
- [Topic: Post-Quantum](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum-pqc/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: Q-Day, Y2Q](https://postquantum.com/q-day-y2q/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-qc/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Deep Dive: Quantum Computing Modalities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-modalities/): Deep dive on quantum computing modalities from mainstream superconducting, trapped-ion, neutral-atom, silicon, photonics, to speculative
- [Deep Dive: Quantum Computing Companies](https://postquantum.com/companies-quantum-computing/): 60+ quantum hardware companies compared: modalities, roadmaps, funding, and CRQC relevance. The patterns that emerge across the landscape
- [Topic: Quantum Networks](https://postquantum.com/quantum-network/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: Quantum AI (QAI)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai-qai/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: Quantum Sensing & Metrology](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing-metrology/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: Quantum Policy & Sovereignty](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies-policy/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: Quantum Commercialization](https://postquantum.com/quantum-tech-commercialization/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: AI Security & Safety](https://postquantum.com/ai-security-safety/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Topic: Cyber-Kinetic Security, Cybersecurity](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security-cybersecurity/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, PQC, Cyber-Kinetic Security, Cybersecurity, AI Security
- [Topic: 5G & mIoT Security](https://postquantum.com/5g-miot-security/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, PQC, Cyber-Kinetic Security, 5G Security, IoT Security
- [Topic: Blockchain & Crypto Security](https://postquantum.com/blockchain-crypto-security/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, PQC, Blockchain Security, Crypto Security
- [Topic: Society 5.0](https://postquantum.com/society-5-0/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, PQC, Blockchain Security, Crypto Security
- [Topic: Leadership](https://postquantum.com/leadership-management/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, PQC, Blockchain Security, Crypto Security
- [Previous Book Reviews](https://postquantum.com/previous-book-reviews/): Future of Leadership in the Age of AI - Book by Marin Ivezic and Luka Ivezic - Reviews
- [Future of Leadership in the Age of AI](https://postquantum.com/future-of-leadership-ai-book/): Future of Leadership in the Age of AI - Book by Marin Ivezic and Luka Ivezic
- [Blockchain and Crypto Security Training](https://postquantum.com/blockchain-and-crypto-security/): Future of Leadership in the Age of AI - Book by Marin Ivezic and Luka Ivezic
- [Cyber-Kinetic Security](https://postquantum.com/book-cyber-kinetic-security/): Cyber-Kinetic Security Book
- [Contributors](https://postquantum.com/contributors/): Many people have contributed to this website and we are thankful to them all for their hard work.
- [AI Use & Editorial Integrity Statement](https://postquantum.com/ai-editorial-policy/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles & News - Switzerland](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-switzerland/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in Switzerland
- [Quantum Articles & News - South Korea](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-south-korea/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in South Korea
- [Quantum Articles & News - Middle East](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-middle-east/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in the Middle East
- [Quantum Articles & News - Russia](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-russia/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in Russia
- [Quantum Articles & News - Europe](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-europe/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in Europe
- [Quantum Articles & News - United Kingdom](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-united-kingdom/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in United Kingdom
- [Quantum Articles & News - ASEAN](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-asean/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in ASEAN
- [Quantum Articles & News - China](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-china/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in China
- [Quantum Articles & News - India](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-india/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in India
- [Quantum Articles & News - Canada](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-canada/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in Canada
- [Quantum Articles & News - Australia](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-australia/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in Australia
- [PostQuantum.com AI Explainer](https://postquantum.com/postquantum-ai-explainer/): PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each
- [Quantum Hardware Companies and Roadmaps Comparison](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-roadmaps-2025/): Comparison of quantum computing hardware and processor companies- what they build, how they plan to reach fault tolerance...
- [PQC Estimation, Readiness, Migration Tools](https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-tools/): I build simple, opinionated tools to help security teams turn hype into action. Each tool is meant for education and scenario exploration
- [Contact Me](https://postquantum.com/contact/): Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy
- [CRQC Readiness Benchmark (Q-Day Estimator)](https://postquantum.com/crqc-readiness-benchmark-q-day-estimator/): CRQC Readiness Benchmark and Q-Day Estimator helps you make your own prediction for the arrival of CRQC and Q-Day
- [PQC Migration Advisor](https://postquantum.com/pqc-migration-advisor/): PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each
- [PQC Readiness Self-Assessment Scorecard](https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-self-assessment-scorecard/): PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each
- [Appearances & Contributions](https://postquantum.com/appearances/): Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI...
- [License](https://postquantum.com/license/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Articles by Country - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/articles-countries-quantum-marin-ivezic/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Articles by Industry - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-industry/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles & News - United States](https://postquantum.com/quantum-articles-news-united-states/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles and News on Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Cyber, AI, Emerging Tech in US
- [Quantum Articles - Aerospace & Automotive](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-aerospace-automotive/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Energy & Utilities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-energy-utilities/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Finance & Banking](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-finance-banking/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Government & Defense](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-government-defense/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Healthcare & Medical Research](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-healthcare/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Materials & Chemicals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-materials-chemicals/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-pharma-biotech/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Supply Chain & Logistics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-logistics/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Articles - Telecommunications](https://postquantum.com/quantum-postquantum-telecommunications/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Quantum Industry News - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/industry-news-post-quantum/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Industry News on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day,
- [Articles - PostQuantum - Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/articles-post-quantum/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Privacy Policy](https://postquantum.com/privacy-policy/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Cookie Policy](https://postquantum.com/cookie-policy/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Terms and Conditions](https://postquantum.com/terms-and-conditions/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [PostQuantum.com - Quantum Computing, Quantum Security, PQC](https://postquantum.com/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Marin Ivezic](https://postquantum.com/marin-ivezic/): Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy
- [Internet of Things (IoT) Wireless Protocols](https://postquantum.com/iot-wireless-protocols/): Future of Leadership in the Age of AI - Book by Marin Ivezic and Luka Ivezic
- [Marin's Q-Day Predictions - Q-Day Estimator & Timeline](https://postquantum.com/marin-q-day-prediction/): PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q
- [Timeline of Key Cyber-Kinetic Attacks, Incidents & Research](https://postquantum.com/timeline-cyber-kinetic/): Timeline of key historic cyber-kinetic attacks, system malfunctions and key researcher demos targeting cyber-physical systems, IoT, ICS...

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## Posts

- [Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) & Quantum Systems Integration: From Monoliths to Modular Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/quantum-open-architecture-qoa-qsi/): Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) and Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) - from monolith to modular. Quantum Computing's PC Revolution
- [Underestimating China: Why Beijing Could Win the Quantum Race](https://postquantum.com/sovereignty-geopolitics/china-quantum-ambition/underestimating-china-quantum-race/): Nine investigations, one conclusion: China's structural advantages in quantum technology — from policy and talent to infrastructure and...
- [China's Quantum Supply Chain: How Export Controls Are Building What They Sought to Prevent](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-supply-chain-self-sufficiency/): China went from zero domestic dilution refrigerator manufacturers in 2021 to ten by 2026. US export controls designed to choke...
- [Architecture Matters as Much as the Algorithm: Q-CTRL's Heterogeneous Quantum Computer Design Cuts RSA-2048 to 190k-381k Qubits](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/architecture-heterogeneous-crqc-q-ctrl/): Q-CTRL's Q-NEXUS heterogeneous architecture cuts RSA-2048 physical qubit requirements to 190k–381k...
- [China's Quantum Sensing Ecosystem: From Deep-Sea Diamonds to Drone-Mounted Submarine Hunters](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-sensing-ecosystem/): China has built the world's most state-directed quantum sensing program — from deep-sea diamond magnetometers to space-based atomic...
- [Anthropic's Mythos Preview and the End of a Twenty-Year Cybersecurity Equilibrium](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/anthropic-mythos-preview-ai-offensive-security/): Anthropic's Claude Mythos Preview autonomously finds and exploits zero-day vulnerabilities in every major OS and browser...
- [OT Security in the Age of AI Exploits: What Anthropic's Mythos Preview Means for Critical Infrastructure](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/ai-offensive-capabilities-critical-infrastructure-ot/): AI models that autonomously find and exploit zero-days are terrifying for IT. For critical infrastructure and OT running decades-old firmware...
- [China's Quantum Networking and QKD — World's Most Ambitious Quantum Communication Program](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-networking-qkd/): China operates the world's only 12,000+ km carrier-grade quantum communication network with satellite QKD...
- [Cloudflare Joins Google: Two Internet Giants Now Say 2029 for Post-Quantum Migration](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cloudflare-pqc-2029/): Cloudflare joins Google in targeting 2029 for full post-quantum security. Two internet giants now agree...
- [China's Quantum Computing Hardware: The Core Capability the West Keeps Misjudging](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-computing-hardware/): From Zuchongzhi 1.0 to below-threshold error correction: a rigorous assessment of where China's quantum computing hardware actually stands
- [Quantum Threat Timeline Report 2025: Record Predictions, But Can the Survey Keep Up?](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantum-threat-timeline-report-2025/): The GRI/evolutionQ Quantum Threat Timeline Report 2025 shows the most optimistic 10-year CRQC predictions in its 7-year history
- [QuiX Quantum Achieves First Below-Threshold Error Mitigation in Photonic Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quix-first-below-threshold-photonic/): QuiX Quantum demonstrates below-threshold photon distillation on a 20-mode photonic processor — the first error mitigation milestone...
- [China's Quantum Talent Ecosystem: Building a Superpower's Workforce](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-talent/): China built its quantum program on a handful of Western-trained scientists who returned home under lavish recruitment schemes...
- [China's Hefei National Laboratory: The Nerve Center of a Quantum Superpower](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-hefei-quantum/): China's Hefei National Laboratory is the world's largest quantum research facility — a 49-hectare campus that has produced breakthroughs...
- [Gauge Theory Meets Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/gauge-theory-meets-quantum-computing/): A new Nature Physics paper borrows from particle physics to solve a stubborn bottleneck in fault-tolerant quantum computing
- [The $15.3 Billion Number That Everyone Cites and Nobody Can Verify](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-investment-unknowable/): Everyone cites McKinsey's $15.3 billion figure for Chinese quantum investment. Nobody can verify it...
- [China's 15th Five-Year Plan Makes Quantum an Industrial Imperative — Not Just a Research Priority](https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-15th-five-year-plan-quantum/): China's 15th Five-Year Plan, approved March 12, 2026, lists quantum technology first among seven "future industries"...
- [The CRQC Scorecard: How Close Is Each Quantum Modality to Breaking Your Encryption?](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-scorecard-how-close/): Two new papers claim 10,000 qubits could run Shor's algorithm. Social media is on fire - "CRQC is here". Here's the reality check...
- [QuantumShield360 AI Achieves World's First Complete Post-Quantum Cryptography Migration — Full Quantum Resilience Across All Enterprise Systems](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantumshield360-ai-pqc-migration-complete/): QuantumShield360 AI announces world's first complete post-quantum cryptography migration across all enterprise systems. [Satire]
- [The Leapfrog Doctrine: How China Systematically Conquered Every Technology It Targeted](https://postquantum.com/sovereignty-geopolitics/china-quantum-ambition/china-leapfrog-doctrine/): China dominates EVs, 5G, robotics, drones, energy, and AI. Data-driven analysis of the Leapfrog Doctrine — and why quantum computing is next.
- [The Dark Horse: How Silicon Quietly Assembled Every Building Block for Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/silicon-dark-horse-quantum-computing/): Silicon quantum computing has quietly assembled every building block for fault-tolerant operation — from threshold-crossing gates to logical qubits...
- [Google Quantum AI Achieves 10x Reduction in Resources to Break Bitcoin's Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/google-quantum-bitcoin-ecdlp/): Google Quantum AI cuts the quantum resources needed to break Bitcoin's cryptography by 10x in spacetime volume, estimating just 500,000...
- [10,000 Qubits to Run Shor's Algorithm](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/10000-qubits-shors/): Hours after Google's ECDLP paper, Oratomic shows Shor's algorithm can run on just 10,000 neutral atom qubits...
- [Three Bets on Silicon: Donor Qubits, Quantum Dots, and the Foundry Path Compared](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/silicon-three-approaches-compared/): Silicon quantum computing isn't one approach — it's three: atomically precise donor qubits, gate-defined quantum dots, and foundry-compatible...
- [The U.S. Intelligence Community Just Put Quantum on Equal Footing with AI. And Expanded the Threat Definition](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/ata-u-s-intelligence-quantum/): The 2026 US Intelligence Community Annual Threat Assessment elevates quantum computing alongside AI as a defining national security challenge
- [Google Just Drew a Line in the Sand: PQC Migration by 2029](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/google-pqc-migration-2029/): Google sets a 2029 deadline for its post-quantum cryptography migration — a year ahead of NIST's deprecation target. What it means...
- [Silicon Crosses the Logical Threshold: First Universal Logical Operations Demonstrated in a Silicon Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-logical-operations-first/): Chinese researchers demonstrate the first universal logical gate operations in a silicon quantum processor...
- [The 1,000-Qubit Ceiling That Probably Isn't](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/the-1000-qubit-ceiling/): An Oxford physicist claims quantum computers face a hard ceiling at 1,000 qubits — but the latest ECC attack estimates...
- [Science Confirms What Large Corporate Survivors Already Knew - Organizational Bullshit Makes You Worse at Your Job](https://postquantum.com/leadership/corporate-bullshit/): Regular readers will know that organizational bullshit is a topic I've been fascinated by - and personally scarred by - for years.
- [A New Algorithm Shrinks the Quantum Attack Surface for ECC](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/algorithm-quantum-ecc/): French researchers halve the logical qubit count needed to break ECC with a quantum computer — from 2,124 to just 1,098 for P-256
- [Quantinuum Squeezes 94 Logical Qubits from 98 Physical — But What Does It Actually Mean?](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantinuum-94-logical-qubits/): Quantinuum squeezes 94 error-detected and 48 error-corrected logical qubits from just 98 physical qubits using iceberg codes on Helios
- [Inside Quantum Computing’s Modular Revolution - Discussion with QuantWare’s CEO Matt Rijlaarsdam](https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/discussion-quantware-ceo-matt/): A recent discussion with QuantWare’s CEO, Matt Rijlaarsdam, shed light on “quantum open architecture” approach that could transform the industry
- [China's Quantum OS Play: Origin Pilot and the Battle for the Integration Layer](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum-os-origin-pilot/): China's Origin Pilot isn't just another quantum SDK - it's a top-down systems integration layer that challenges the West's approach to QOA
- [China Releases Freely Downloadable Quantum Operating System](https://postquantum.com/quantum-si-news/china-first-downloadable-quantum-os/): China's Origin Quantum Computing Technology Co. has made its quantum operating system, Origin Pilot, available for free public download
- [The White House Just Released Its New National Cyber Strategy. It's Not a Strategy.](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/white-house-national-cyber-strategy/): 7 Mar 2026 - the White House released "President Trump's Cyber Strategy for America," the administration's long-delayed national cyber strategy
- [Origin Quantum Computing Technology Co.](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/origin-quantum/): Origin Quantum Computing Technology Co. is China's first and most prominent quantum computing startup, building a vertically integrated...
- [No One Has Secretly Broken RSA-2048 or RSA-4096 — Here's the Science](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/no-broken-rsa-2048-4096/): If someone tells you RSA-2048 or even RSA-4096 has been secretly cracked, they are either lying to you or have been lied to.
- [Bitcoin's Quantum Timeline Is Not RSA's Quantum Timeline](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/bitcoin-quantum-risk-closer-ecc/): Most quantum-risk-to-Bitcoin analyses rehash RSA-2048 timelines. They're missing the point. Bitcoin doesn't use RSA. It uses 256-bit ECC...
- [SCSP Launches Bipartisan Commission on U.S. Quantum Primacy](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/scsp-commission-quantum-primacy/): The Special Competitive Studies Project (SCSP) has launched the Commission on U.S. Quantum Primacy (CUSP), a new bipartisan body...
- [Quantum Sovereignty & Geopolitics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty-geopolitics/): Quantum sovereignty & the new cold war; quantum geopolitics; quantum self-reliance; quantum independence; quantum strategic autonomy
- [Q-FUD: The Quantum Panic Industry](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/q-fud-the-quantum-panic-industry/): Cybersecurity has always had a FUD problem. Q‑FUD is that same playbook, just dressed in quantum vocabulary. Why is Q‑FUD uniquely toxic?
- [Switzerland Just Published the Quietest Quantum Strategy in Europe. It Might Be the Smartest.](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-quantum-strategy/): Switzerland publishes its first national quantum strategy, betting on open collaboration and ecosystem depth over big-spend national champions.
- [Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (qLDPC) Codes](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-low-density-parity-check-qldpc-codes/): Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (qLDPC) codes are an emerging class of quantum error-correcting codes that promise to significantly...
- [The "Cybersecurity Apocalypse in 2026" and the Jesse–Victor–Gharabaghi (JVG) Algorithm: Why This Claim Doesn't Hold Up](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cybersecurity-apocalypse-in-2026-jvg/): Jesse–Victor–Gharabaghi (JVG) algorithm from "Advanced Quantum Technologies Institute" and claims of Cybersecurity Apocalypse in 2026
- [Pinnacle Architecture: 100,000 Qubits to Break RSA-2048, but at What Cost?](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pinnacle-architecture-break-rsa-2048-critical/): Iceberg Quantum's Pinnacle Architecture paper claims RSA-2048 can be factored with fewer than 100,000 physical qubits...
- [Engineering the Quantum Operating System (OS) Stack: From Nanosecond Pulse Control to System-Level Orchestration](https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/quantum-operating-system-os/): There is no quantum operating system. Not in any meaningful sense of the term. There is no software layer that can take a...
- [Google's Merkle Tree (MTC) Gambit to Quantum-Proof HTTPS](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/googles-merkle-tree-mtc-https/): Google will not put post-quantum signatures into traditional X.509 certificates for Chrome. Instead, the company announced in February 2026...
- [Payments and the Race to Quantum Safety / Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/payments-quantum-pqc/): The payments industry has navigated big cryptographic transitions before. The migration from magnetic stripes to EMV chips took the better part...
- [120,000 Tasks: Why Post‑Quantum (PQC) Migration Is Enormous](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-security-pqc-program-plan/): A comprehensive quantum security / post-quantum cryptography (PQC) migration program plan could contain over 120,000 discrete tasks
- [The EU Just Proposed Including Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) in NIS2](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/eu-pqc-nis2/): EU published COM(2026) 13 final - a proposed directive amending NIS2 as part of a broader cybersecurity simplification package...
- [No, the “Pinnacle Architecture” Is Not Bringing Q-Day Closer 2-5 Years (but It Is Credible Research)](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/pinnacle-architecture-q-day/): The Pinnacle Architecture paper claims an end‑to‑end, fault‑tolerant design that could factor an RSA‑2048 modulus at under 100,000 physical qubits 
- [Peking University Demonstrates 20-User Chip-Based QKD Network Spanning 3,700 km](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/peking-university-chip-tfqkd-network/): Peking University demonstrates a 20-user chip-based TF-QKD network spanning 3,700 km using integrated photonics and optical microcombs...
- [QuantWare](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantware/): QuantWare is a Delft, Netherlands-based quantum computing startup that provides superconducting quantum processors...
- [China Just Pushed Device-Independent QKD (DI-QKD) to 100 Kilometres](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/china-di-qkd-100/): USTC team published a paper that quietly redrew the map of what device-independent quantum key distribution (DI-QKD) can do
- [India’s Task Force Releases Quantum‑Safe Roadmap with 2027–2029 Migration Timeline for CII](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/indias-quantum-safe-roadmap/): India’s Department of Science and Technology (DST) published the “Implementation of Quantum Safe Ecosystem in India"
- [USTC Demonstrates First Scalable Quantum Repeater Building Block](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/ustc-scalable-quantum-repeater/): USTC team demonstrates first quantum repeater building block where entanglement outlasts its own generation time over 10 km fiber
- [Hong Kong’s HKMA Launches Quantum Preparedness Index to Safeguard Finance](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/hkma-quantum-preparedness-index/): Hong Kong’s central bank HKMA unveils a “Quantum Preparedness Index” to gauge how ready its banks are for the quantum computing era
- [Silicon's Hidden Advantage: How Biased Noise Could Slash the Cost of Quantum Error Correction](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/silicon-biased-noise-advantage/): Silicon donor qubits exhibit strongly biased noise — phase-flip errors dominate while bit-flip errors are essentially absent. This asymmetry...
- [Quantum Open Architecture (QOA): The "PC Moment" of Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-open-architecture-qoa/): Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) is doing for quantum computing what the PC revolution did for classical computing...
- [Silicon Catches Its First Errors](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-quantum-error-detection/): A Chinese research team demonstrates the first stabilizer-based quantum error detection in a silicon quantum processor...
- [Micius, the World's First Quantum Communication Satellite, Has Left the Sky](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/micius-satellite-reentry/): China's Micius quantum satellite — the world's first quantum communication satellite — has reentered Earth's atmosphere...
- [CISA Draws the Line: The Product Category Advisory & The End of Legacy Procurement](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cisa-pqc-procurement/): CISA released a definitive advisory titled "Product Categories for Technologies Use Post-Quantum Cryptography Standards"
- [Quantum Sovereignty in Practice: When Geopolitics Becomes Architecture](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty/): At its core, quantum sovereignty means having full control over the critical layers of quantum technology domestically...
- [Citi’s Quantum Threat Report: The Trillion-Dollar Security Race in Focus](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/citi-quantum-threat-report/): The Citi Institute - a research arm of a banking giant Citigroup - published a warning titled “Quantum Threat: The Trillion-Dollar Security Race Is On”
- [The Cryptographic Iceberg Inside a Mobile Banking Transaction](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-cbom-mobile-banking/): A single mobile banking payment triggers millions of cryptographic function calls across nine parties. Here's what actually happens...
- [G7’s Post‑Quantum Roadmap: Preparing the Financial Sector for a Quantum-Resilient Future](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/g7-postquantum-roadmap-pqc/): The G7 Cyber Expert Group (CEG) issued a landmark roadmap for the financial sector’s transition to post-quantum cryptography.
- [The Complete US Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Regulatory Framework in 2026](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/us-pqc-regulatory-framework-2026/): Three pillars anchor the US PQC framework: the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act (federal law that no executive order can undo)...
- [What It Takes to Build a Quantum Computer: Mapping the Hidden Supply Chains Behind Every Modality](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/quantum-computing-supply/): Behind every quantum processor sits an ecosystem of enabling technologies, specialist suppliers, and critical infrastructure without which...
- [The Foundry's Hidden Supply Chain: Who Really Wins If Silicon Spin Quantum Computing Wins](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/silicon-spin-quantum-ecosystem/): Silicon spin qubits bet that the trillion-dollar semiconductor industry can be repurposed for quantum computing. Here's who wins if silicon spin wins
- [NIS2, DORA, and the EU Post-Quantum Roadmap](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/nis2-dora-pqc-quantum/): If you are a CISO under NIS2 or DORA, you are already expected to run a risk-management system that tracks material, evolving threats...
- [China's Zuchongzhi 3.2 Crosses the Error Correction Threshold - and Takes a Different Path Than Google to Get There](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/zuchongzhi-3-2-belowthreshold/): China's Zuchongzhi 3.2 becomes the first quantum processor outside the US to achieve below-threshold error correction...
- [No Single Law, No Single Excuse: How Canada Regulates PQC Without Saying "Quantum"](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/canada-pqc-regulatory-framework/): Canada's visible PQC guidance - three documents published mid-2025 - is just the tip. Beneath it sits a layered enforcement framework...
- [Enterprise PQC Migration: New Study Predicts 5–15+ Year Timelines](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/enterprise-pqc-migration-study/): A new peer-reviewed study titled "Enterprise Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography: Timeline Analysis and Strategic Frameworks"...
- [Crypto Agility Goes from Buzzword to Blueprint - NIST Releases "Considerations for Achieving Crypto Agility"](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/crypto-agility-nist/): NIST published the final version of the Cybersecurity White Paper (CSWP) 39 – “Considerations for Achieving Crypto Agility,,,
- [Eleven Qubits, Two Registers, One Processor: Silicon Quantum Computing Links Atomic-Scale Nodes With Record Fidelity](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-11-qubit-atom-processor/): Silicon Quantum Computing demonstrates an 11-qubit atom processor linking two phosphorus donor registers with gate fidelities...
- [Rydberg Atom Sensors: The Quantum Technology That Could Rewrite the Rules of Electronic Warfare](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/rydberg-atom-sensors-china-kewei/): Rydberg atom sensors detect electromagnetic fields from DC to terahertz without antennas...
- [China Puts a Quantum-Advantage Machine on the Cloud - and It's Fully Domestically Built](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/tianyan-287/): China's fully domestically produced Tianyan-287 quantum computer goes commercial, completing 1M random circuit samples in 18.4 minutes...
- [BIS Project Leap Phase 2 - PQC in Real-World Payment Systems](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/bis-leap-2-pqc-payments/): The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) and the Eurosystem published the results of Project Leap Phase 2, a massive technical trial testing...
- [Telecom Quantum Readiness: Why the Urgency and Where to Start](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/telecom-quantum-readiness-start/): An increasing number of telecom leaders have been pinging me lately about quantum readiness. And frankly, that’s exactly what they should be...
- [QuantWare’s “10,000‑qubit chip” headline: a real scaling bet - and why it still doesn’t mean Q‑Day](https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/quantware-10000qubit/): Dutch startup QuantWare has announced VIO-40K™, a new 3D packaging architecture designed to build superconducting quantum processors...
- [OECD Maps the Quantum Statecraft Era](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/oecd-quantum-national-strategies/): This week, the OECD published An overview of national strategies and policies for quantum technologies as OECD Digital Economy Papers No. 379
- [How the EU Can Capture the Benefits of Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/eu-quantum-benefits/): EU has entered the global quantum race with determination - aiming not just to excel in research, but to translate breakthroughs into economic...
- [The Infrastructure Beneath the Qubit: Four Enabling Technologies That Will Determine Which Quantum Computers Actually Scale](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/quantum-infrastructure-technologies/): Quantum computers need more than qubits. The enabling technologies — control electronics, cryogenics, error correction hardware, and materials
- [Quantum Key Distribution (QKD): Why Countries Differ on Its Future](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qkd-countries-differ/): Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) - a method of securing communications using quantum physics - has become a flashpoint...
- [Danish Photonics Startup Sparrow Quantum Raises $32M](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/sparrow-quantum-32m/): Sparrow Quantum, a spin-out from the Niels Bohr Institute, has closed a €27.5 million (~$32 million) Series A round...
- [Q-Day: Predicting the Unpredictable](https://postquantum.com/q-day-prediction/q-day-predicting/): When will Q-Day arrive? Frameworks, forecasts, and tools for predicting when quantum computers will break crypto and why the clock is ticking
- [D-Wave Targets U.S. Government With New Quantum Unit](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-gov-unit/): D-Wave Quantum Inc. has launched a dedicated business unit to accelerate quantum adoption across U.S. government agencies.
- [Linking Two Quantum Networks](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/linking-two-quantum-networks/): A new paper in Nature Photonics by Natalia Herrera Valencia et al. (2025) reports a prototype quantum network that connects two previously...
- [Sovereignty Stress Tests: Tabletop Scenarios for States and Enterprises](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/sovereignty-stress-test-tabletop/): In an era of quantum and digital sovereignty, governments and companies must ensure they aren’t caught off-guard by geopolitical tech disruptions.
- [Rethinking CBOM](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/rethinking-cbom/): If SBOM is the ingredients list for software, CBOM is the ingredients list for the security assumptions...
- [White House “Genesis Mission” Links Supercomputers, AI & Quantum](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/white-house-genesis/): The White House has launched the Genesis Mission, an ambitious Department of Energy initiative to integrate America’s...
- [Quantum Funding Surge: Firgun Ventures’ $70 M Quantum Tech VC Round](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/firgun-70m-quantum/): Investor confidence in quantum technology is reaching new heights, as evidenced by London-based Firgun Ventures announcing a $70 million...
- [Pentagon CIO memo puts post-quantum crypto on a procurement leash](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/pentagon-cio-dow-dod-memo-pqc/): A memo from The Pentagon CIO dated Nov. 18, 2025 (cleared for open publication Nov. 20) forces a shift from ad‑hoc PQC pilots to a controlled...
- [Jülich Simulates a 50-Qubit Quantum Computer on an Exascale Supercomputer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/julich-50-qubit/): Researchers at Forschungszentrum Jülich have fully simulated a universal 50-qubit quantum computer using Europe’s first exascale supercomputer
- [U.S. Panel Urges a “Quantum First” Goal by 2030 to Outpace China](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/us-quantum-first-report/): U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission says: America should adopt a “Quantum First” national goal by 2030
- [IBM and Cisco Want to Network Fault‑Tolerant quantum computers](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-cisco-network-ftqc/): IBM and Cisco’s joint announcement this week is easy to misread as another “quantum + internet” headline. It isn’t.
- [OCP Initiative to Integrate Quantum Computers into Data Centers](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ocp-quantum-computers/): The Open Compute Project (OCP) has launched a new workstream to prepare conventional data centers for co-locating quantum computers...
- [Palo Alto Networks CEO Warns of Nation-State Quantum Threat by 2029](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/palo-alto-quantum-pqc/): Nikesh Arora, CEO of Palo Alto Networks, has issued a stark warning that hostile nation-states may possess CRQC by 2029
- [Quantum Utility Block: A Fast-Track, Modular Path to Quantum Utility](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-utility-block-announced/): Three quantum technology companies – QuantWare, Q-CTRL, and Qblox - jointly unveiled a new offering called the Quantum Utility Block (QUB)...
- [Microsoft Brings Post-Quantum Crypto to Windows 11 and .NET](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsoft-pqc-windows/): Microsoft has announced the general availability of NIST’s post-quantum cryptography (PQC) algorithms in core Windows and .NET platforms
- [Full-Photonic Quantum Teleportation Achieved at Telecom Wavelengths](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/photonic-quantum-teleportation-telecom/): In a breakthrough for quantum communication, a research team led by Tim Strobel has demonstrated quantum teleportation between two remote
- [Elevate Quantum Launches First Open Quantum Architecture System in U.S. (Colorado)](https://postquantum.com/qoa-news/elevate-quantum-qoa/): United States’ first Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) quantum computing system, to be hosted in Colorado. In a collaborative effort...
- [The Tweezer Array's Hidden Supply Chain: Who Really Wins If Neutral-Atom Quantum Computing Wins](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/neutral-atom-quantum-ecosystem/): Neutral-atom quantum computers run on lasers, vacuum chambers, and off-the-shelf atoms — no exotic materials, no millikelvin temperatures.
- [Experimental Quantum Error Correction Below Threshold](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/qec-below-threshold-experiments/): When Harvard’s neutral-atom team quietly dropped their new paper on a fault-tolerant architecture for universal quantum computation...
- [Investment Screening and M&A: When Capital Becomes a Quantum Sovereignty Vector](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/investment-capital-quantum-sovereignty/): Foreign investment screening, acquisition scrutiny, and “strategic capital” policies increasingly shape which quantum technology companies survive
- [China’s “Photonic Quantum Chip” Is Impressive. But It’s Also a Case Study in Quantum-Washing](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/chinese-photonic-quantum-chip/): Every few months, a headline pops up proclaiming the dawn of a new quantum breakthrough - often accompanied by phrases like...
- [Quantum Sovereign Optionality: Agility Over Autarky](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereign-optionality/): Technical sovereignty has become a buzzword in geopolitical and tech circles. As global alliances fray and trust in traditional partners wanes...
- [Photonic Inc.](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/photonic-inc/): Photonic Inc. is a Vancouver-based quantum computing startup pioneering a distributed, fault-tolerant quantum computer architecture...
- [IBM Unveils “Nighthawk” and “Loon” Quantum Chips: Milestones Toward Quantum Advantage and Fault Tolerance](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-loon-nighthawk/): IBM has announced two significant advances in quantum computing as part of its updated roadmap on November 12, 2025...
- [Silicon Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/silicon-quantum-computing/): Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC) is an Australian quantum hardware company based in Sydney, founded in May 2017...
- [The Five Stages from Idea to Impact: Google’s Framework for Quantum Applications](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-framework-quantum-applications/): Google’s Quantum AI team has unveiled a new five-stage framework to guide the development of useful quantum computing applications.
- [A Quantum Contrarian Con Artist](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/pseudoscience-quantum-contrarianism/): In the growing spotlight on quantum technology, a new kind of opportunist is taking the stage - the contrarian con artist...
- [Quantum Motion](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-motion/): Quantum Motion is a London-based quantum computing company pioneering a silicon-based approach to building scalable quantum computers...
- [Harvard’s 448-Atom Quantum Computer Achieves Fault-Tolerant Milestone](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/harvard-fault-tolerant/): A Harvard-led team unveiled a record-breaking neutral-atom quantum processor that for the first time integrates all core elements of scalable...
- [Quantum Computing Due-Diligence: A Field Guide to Evaluating Startups, Technologies, and Claims](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-due-diligence/): Over the years, I’ve developed a personal toolkit - a field guide - for evaluating quantum startups and their claims. The goal is to neither be...
- [Quantinuum’s Helios Quantum Computer Demonstrates Quantum Advantage](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantinuums-helios-quantum-advantage/): Quantum computing has reached a new milestone with Quantinuum’s Helios system - a 98-qubit trapped-ion quantum computer...
- [California Launches “Quantum California” Initiative](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-california-initiative/): California is making a bid to become the epicenter of the quantum tech economy. Governor Gavin Newsom unveiled Quantum California...
- [UK Unveils Major Quantum Initiatives at 2025 Showcase](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-quantum-initiatives/): The United Kingdom is ramping up its quantum ambitions with a slate of new initiatives and international partnerships announced at...
- [DARPA’s Quantum Benchmarking Initiative (QBI) – 11 Companies Advance to Stage B](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/darpaqbi-stage-b/): On November 6, 2025, DARPA announced the first cohort of companies that have successfully completed Stage A and are advancing to Stage B
- [Analysis of Quantinuum Helios, a 98‑Qubit Trapped‑Ion Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantinuum-helios-architecture/): In November 2025, Quantinuum unveiled Helios, a new 98-qubit quantum processor that pushes the frontier of quantum computing...
- [Quantinuum Raises $800 M at $10 B Valuation](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantinuum-raises-800m/): In a sign of surging investor confidence in quantum computing, Quantinuum  has secured an $800 million funding round that values it at roughly $10B
- [Princeton Builds Qubit 3× Longer-Lived (1 ms Coherence)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/princeton-qubit-coherence/): A team at Princeton University has achieved a major leap in quantum hardware: a superconducting qubit that retains its quantum state...
- [IonQ & Partners Launch City-Scale Quantum Network in Geneva](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ionq-quantum-network-geneva/): California is making a bid to become the epicenter of the quantum tech economy. Governor Gavin Newsom unveiled Quantum California...
- [Quantinuum Launches ‘Helios’ Hybrid Quantum Computer, To Be Deployed in Singapore](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantinuum-launches-helios-sg/): Quantinuum, a leading quantum computing firm, has officially launched Helios, a new general-purpose quantum computing system
- [U.S. DOE Invests $625 M to Renew National Quantum Centers](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/us-625m-renew/): American officials are doubling down on quantum research. On November 4, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced $625 million
- [Why We Need a Quantum Security ISAC](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/need-quantum-isac/): Quantum computing promises revolutionary capabilities, but it also poses unprecedented threats to cybersecurity. So we need an ISAC...
- [Sovereign Quantum Clouds and National Control](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/sovereign-quantum-compute-cloud/): Quantum computing is rapidly shifting from lab prototypes to cloud-based services. Organizations will access quantum capabilities “as a service”...
- [Xanadu to Go Public in $3 B Photonic Quantum SPAC](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/xanadu-public/): In a landmark deal for the quantum industry, Canada’s Xanadu Quantum Technologies announced plans to go public via a merger...
- [How ECC Became the Easiest Quantum Target](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/shor-rsa-ecc-diffie-hellman/): Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) will likely fall to quantum computers before RSA does - a cruel irony, since ECC's smaller keys were considered an advantage
- [China Deploys 100-Qubit Neutral-Atom Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-100-qubit/): China has reached a new milestone in quantum computing with the deployment of Hǎnyuán-1, the country’s first room-temperature neutral-atom
- [EU Launches Plan for a Comprehensive "Quantum Act"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-quantum-act/): The European Union is laying the groundwork for a major legislative push in quantum technologies with a proposed EU Quantum Act...
- [Securing Quantum Computers - Threat at the Quantum-Classical Interface](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/securing-quantum-computers/): A global race is on to build cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQCs) - machines powerful enough to break current encryption...
- [Quantum Sensor Endures Extreme Pressures (240 GPa)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-sensor-pressures/): Scientists have built a diamond-based quantum sensor that operates stably at pressures up to 240 GPa - about 2.4 million atmospheres...
- [Quantum Systems Integration](https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/quantum-systems-integration/): Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) refers to the holistic process of designing, assembling, and deploying quantum computing systems...
- [Chokepoints and Industrial Base Realism: What “Quantum Supply Chain Sovereignty” Actually Means](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-supply-chain-sovereignty/): Talk of quantum sovereignty - a nation’s independent control over quantum technology - means little unless backed by tangible supply chain control.
- [NVIDIA Bridges Quantum and Classical Supercomputing](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nvidia-quantum-classical/): NVIDIA is forging a tighter link between quantum and classical supercomputers. At its GTC Washington, D.C. event NVIDIA unveiled NVQLink...
- [Cloudflare Secures Majority of Internet Traffic with PQC](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/cloudflare-pqc-majority-traffic/): As of October 2025, a major milestone was reached: over 50% of human web traffic through Cloudflare’s network is now protected...
- [Q-Day Isn’t an Outage - It’s a Confidence Crisis](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qday-confidence-crisis/): Cybersecurity lore often paints Q-Day (the moment a quantum computer cracks RSA/ECC encryption) as an instant "Quantum Apocalypse"...
- [Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) Smashes Distance Record](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/qkd-distance-120/): A European research team demonstrated quantum key distribution (QKD) over 120 km of optical fiber while sharing that fiber with normal data traffic
- [IBM Uses AMD Chips for Quantum Error Correction](https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/ibm-amd-qec/): IBM has reached a crucial milestone on the road to fault-tolerant quantum computing - and it did so using off-the-shelf hardware...
- [Google Announces “Verifiable Quantum Advantage” on Willow Quantum Chip](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/googles-quantum-advantage/): Google’s 105-qubit Willow quantum processor was used to demonstrate a “verifiable quantum advantage,” performing certain...
- [IonQ’s 99.99% Breakthrough and What It Means for Q Day](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/ionq-record-2025/): IonQ announced a new world record in quantum gate performance: >99.99% two‑qubit fidelity demonstrated on trapped‑ion hardware...
- [Post-Quantum Negligence: Legal Risks of Failing to Prepare for the Quantum Threat](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/legal-risks-quantum/): Quantum computing is no longer a far-off hypothesis - it’s an emerging reality that could render today’s encryption obsolete... and create legal risks
- [Sovereignty in the PQC Era: Standards, Trust, and Crypto-Agility](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/sovereignty-quantum-pqc/): Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) is entering the standards stage, with the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
- [Unpacking the “Modular Quantum Factoring” Hype: Why RSA Isn’t Dead Yet](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/modular-quantum-factoring/): I’ve been inundated with messages asking about a recent paper titled “A Modular, Adaptive, and Scalable Quantum Factoring Algorithm.”
- [🏆 The Quantum Minute Wins Best Podcast Series of 2025 - and What That Really Means for Cybersecurity](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-minute-best-podcast/): I’m proud, both personally and professionally, to share that Applied Quantum’s podcast, The Quantum Minute, produced by...
- [Trust Now, Forge Later (TNFL) - The Overlooked Quantum Threat](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/trust-now-forge-later/): What is "Trust Now, Forge Later" (TNFL)? Most discussions about quantum computing threats focus on “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (HNDL)...
- [Quantum Sieving Breakthrough: Lattice Attack Exponent Slashed by 8%](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-sieving-breakthrough/): A Dutch-led research team has achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum cryptanalysis of lattices. In an October 2025 paper...
- [Treasury Board’s PQC SPIN: Canada Turns Post‑Quantum Migration Into Dated, Auditable Requirements](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/tb-spin-canada-pqc/): Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat has now formalized PQC migration as a measurable federal IT obligation via a SPIN...
- [Quantum Readiness Is Not (Just) a Vendor Problem](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-vendor/): In the recent IBM's “Secure the Post-Quantum Future” report 62% of executives admitted that their organization is waiting for vendors...
- [Quantum Tunnelling on a Chip: Why the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics Matters for Quantum Tech](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nobel-prize-physics-2025-quantum/): The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics went to John Clarke, Michel Devoret and John Martinis for a deceptively simple...
- [IBM’s “Secure the Post-Quantum Future” Report](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-secure-the-post-quantum-future/): A new report from IBM’s Institute for Business Value (IBV) titled "Secure the Post-Quantum Future" was released.
- [Predicting Quantum Computing Winning 2025 Nobel Physics Prize](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/2025-nobel-quantum-computing/): Announcements of 2025 Nobel Prize winners start tomorrow. With announcements for Nobel Prize for Physics scheduled for Tuesday 7 October.
- [Capturing Uncertainty](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/capturing-uncertainty/): A team of researchers at the University of Arizona has published a new paper titled “Attosecond quantum uncertainty...
- [Above 1 K Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/above-1-k-qubits/): A new peer-reviewed study in Physical Review X reports a breakthrough in quantum computing hardware...
- [Canada’s PQC Procurement Playbook: ITSM.00.501 Moves Post-Quantum From Strategy to Contract Language](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/canada-itsm-00-501-pqc/): 10 Oct 2025 - The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security’s newly released ITSM.00.501 is the most procurement-ready PQC artifact...
- [Italy’s Largest Quantum Computer Built on Open Architecture Debuts in Naples](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/italy-quantum-computer-qoa/): The University of Naples Federico II unveiled Italy’s most powerful quantum computer - a 64-qubit system assembled using a revolutionary...
- [FCA’s Latest Research Note Explores Quantum Computing in Financial Services](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/fca-quantum-finance/): The UK’s Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) has released a new Research Note titled “Quantum Computing Applications in Financial Services”
- [Getting Started With Quantum Security and PQC Migration](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/getting-started-quantum-security-pqc/): Your complete roadmap to quantum security for your organization — from boardroom mandate to operational crypto-agility and PQC migration
- [The Fab's Hidden Supply Chain: Who Really Wins If Photonic Quantum Computing Wins](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/photonic-quantum-ecosystem/): Photonic quantum computers bet that light - manufactured in semiconductor fabs and routed over telecom fiber - can scale where...
- [Quantum MedBeds and Death Threats](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-medbeds/): I just received a death threat over something called “quantum medbeds.” So let’s talk about medbeds.
- [U.S. Federal Reserve Warns of Quantum Threat to Bitcoin](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/fed-quantum-ledger/): The U.S. Federal Reserve is sounding the alarm that future quantum computers could pose a serious threat to the security of cryptocurrencies
- [The Optical Table's Hidden Supply Chain: Who Really Wins If Trapped-Ion Quantum Computing Wins](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/trapped-ion-quantum-ecosystem/): Trapped-ion quantum computers trade cryogenics for lasers, vacuum chambers, and precision optics. Here's who wins if trapped ions win
- [The Chandelier's Hidden Supply Chain: Who Really Wins If Superconducting Quantum Computing Wins](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/superconducting-quantum-ecosystem/): The superconducting quantum computer chandelier is beautiful, but it is a product of an industrial supply chain as much as it is a product of physics.
- [Cisco’s Full-Stack Approach and the Road to Quantum Data Centers](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/networking-quantum-computers-cisco/): Cisco took on an ambitious full-stack strategy to make distributed quantum computing a reality sooner than many expect.
- [MAS and Partners Unveil QKD Sandbox Technical Report: Quantum Security in Financial Services](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/mas-qkd-sandbox/): The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), together with four major banks (DBS, HSBC, OCBC, UOB) and tech partners SPTel and SpeQtral...
- [Alice & Bob’s One-Hour "Cat Qubit" Breakthrough - What It Means for Quantum Computing and Q-Day](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/alice-bobs-one-hour-cat-qubit/): A new experiment from quantum computing startup Alice & Bob has set a remarkable milestone. In a recent blog post titled...
- [Researchers Demonstrate Quantum Entanglement Can Slash a 20-Million-Year Learning Task Down to Minutes](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-learning-advantage/): A team led by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has published a paper, “Quantum learning advantage on a scalable photonic platform”
- [New Paper Alert: “Low‑Overhead Transversal Fault Tolerance for Universal Quantum Computation”](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/algorithmic-fault-tolerance/): A new fault-tolerance framework unveiled by researchers from QuEra, Harvard, and Yale promises to drastically reduce the time overhead...
- [FS-ISAC’s New Roadmap for Post-Quantum Migration in Finance](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/fs-isac-pqc-migration/): Financial industry CISOs have a new playbook for the post-quantum era. FS-ISAC has published a position paper titled...
- [Silicon Spin Qubits Achieve >99% Fidelity in 300‑mm Foundry Fabrication](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-spin-qubits-fabrication/): The race toward large-scale quantum computing just hit a significant milestone. In a new Nature paper “Industry‑compatible silicon spin‑qubit...
- [HSBC and IBM’s Quantum-Enabled Bond Trading Breakthrough](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/hsbc-ibm-quantum-advantage/): HSBC and IBM revealed the world’s first-known quantum-enabled algorithmic trading trial in the bond market...
- [Caltech’s 6,100-Qubit Optical Tweezer Array: A Quantum Leap in Scale and Coherence](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/caltechs-6100-qubit/): In a new quantum computing milestone, Caltech physicists have created the largest qubit array ever assembled: 6,100 atomic qubits...
- [Quantum-Readiness / PQC Full Program Description (Telecom Example)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-telco/): Preparing a large telecom (or any enterprise) for the post-quantum cryptography era is a massive, multi-faceted undertaking, but it is achievable...
- [White House FY2027 R&D Memo Puts Quantum Technologies Front and Center](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/white-house-fy2027-rd-memo/): The Executive Office of the President (Office of Management and Budget and Office of Science and Technology Policy) issued a memorandum...
- [ACSC’s Post-Quantum Plan: Start Now, Plan for Longer Execution](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/acscs-post-quantum/): The Australian Cyber Security Centre (ACSC) has published updated guidance titled “Planning for Post-Quantum Cryptography.”
- [NIST Releases NIST SP 800-227 Recommendations for Key-Encapsulation Mechanisms](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-sp-800-227/): NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project
- [NIST Releases NIST CSWP 48 IPD - Mapping of Migration to PQC Project to NIST CSF 2.0](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-cswp-48-ipd/): NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project
- [Harvard & MIT’s Continuous 3,000-Qubit Breakthrough: A New Era of Quantum Operation](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/harvard-mit-continuous-3000-qubit/): A team led by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has published a paper, “Quantum learning advantage on a scalable photonic platform”
- [Factoring RSA-2048 in 20 Minutes with 42 Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-security-pqc/factoring-rsa-2048-42-qubits/): Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) and Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) - from monolith to modular. Quantum Computing's PC Revolution
- [Electrically Triggered Spin-Photon Device Demonstrated in Silicon](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/spin-photon-silicon/): A new research paper titled “Electrically triggered spin-photon devices in silicon” has been published in Nature Photonics
- [Forget Q-Day Predictions - Regulators, Insurers, Investors, Clients Are Your New Quantum Clock](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-deadlines-set/): Whether you personally believe Q-Day will come in 5 years or 50, the world around you isn’t taking chances - and neither can you.
- [New Paper Alert: A Relational Critique of Bell Locality](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/relational-critique-bell-locality/): Just a few days ago Waaijer and van Neerven published a paper "A Relational Critique of Bell Locality" in which they analyze Bell experiments...
- [First Unconditional Quantum Information Supremacy: 12 Qubits vs 62 Classical Bits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-information-supremacy/): A team of researchers from the University of Texas at Austin and Quantinuum has achieved a landmark result in quantum computing
- [What 60+ Quantum Hardware Roadmaps Actually Tell Us](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-computing-companies-roadmaps/): 60+ quantum hardware companies compared: modalities, roadmaps, funding, and CRQC relevance. The patterns that emerge across the landscape
- [New Paper Alert: Brace for Impact: New ECDLP Challenge Ladder Benchmarks Quantum Threat to Bitcoin](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/ecdlp-challenge-ladder/): The “Brace for Impact” ECDLP challenge suite is a great attempt to translate a looming cryptographic crisis into a concrete set of problems...
- [The Easiest Job in Quantum Computing - Being a Cynic](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cynicism/): Don’t mistake the noise of cynicism for the signal of intelligence. If someone validates themselves as a useless cynic - unwilling to provide...
- [Stop Asking What Number a Quantum Computer Factored. Ask These Five Questions Instead](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computer-factored-question/): One of the laziest talking points in quantum security is that quantum computing has “gone nowhere” because people still talk about factoring 15..
- [New Paper Alert: Mapping Quantum Industry Demands to Education](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mapping-quantum-industry-education/): A new peer-reviewed study - “Mapping quantum industry demands to education: a critical analysis of skills, qualifications, and modalities”
- [Japan Launches First Homegrown Quantum Computer, Marking a Quantum Sovereignty Milestone](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/japan-homegrown-quantum-computer/): Japan has officially switched on its first quantum computer built entirely with homegrown technology. The new superconducting system...
- [Why Companies May Need a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO)](https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-quantum-officer-cqo/): In my opinion, forward-thinking organizations should consider creating a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO) role.
- [Magic States: A Key to Universal Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/magic-states/): Magic states are special quantum states that enable the universal operations needed for any quantum algorithm, yet which are not themselves...
- [Device-Independent QKD (DI-QKD)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/device-independent-qkd-di-qkd/): Modern quantum key distribution (QKD) has always carried a slightly uncomfortable subtext: the math may be information-theoretic...
- [Jiuzhang 4.0: 3,050 Photons, 25.6 Microseconds, and a Direct Answer to the Algorithm That Threatened Photonic Quantum Advantage](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-4-0/): China's Jiuzhang 4.0 photonic processor detects 3,050 photons in 25.6 microseconds, defeating the classical MPS algorithm...
- [Why “They’ve Only Factored 15” Is the Wrong Way to Judge Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-factored-only-15-21/): Early Shor demos were proofs of control, not the real scoreboard. The path to a cryptographically relevant quantum computer runs through
- [Marin’s Law on Crypto-Agility: Adaptability Determines Survivability](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/marins-law-crypto-agility/): Thesis: Migration time to safer cryptography is inversely proportional to an organization’s crypto-agility.
- [The Border Around Quantum: Export Controls, Deemed Exports, and “Research as a Controlled Flow”](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-export-controls/): Export controls have emerged as a main lever to throttle or channel the flow of quantum know-how and equipment, effectively drawing new borders
- [Alice & Bob’s New “Unfolded” Code Dramatically Lowers Magic State Overhead](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/alice-bobs-magic-state-paper/): A new research paper from quantum startup Alice & Bob in collaboration with Inria unveils a technique to significantly reduce the cost of magic state
- [CRQC Readiness Benchmark vs. Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark-vs-qtt/): I will try and compare my proposed CRQC Readiness Benchmark with QTT, highlighting fundamental differences in methodology, assumptions...
- [How You, Too, Can Predict Q-Day (Without the Hype)](https://postquantum.com/q-day/how-to-predict-q-day/): For three decades, Q-Day has been “just a few years away.” I want to show you how to make your own prediction on when Q-Day will arrive.
- [The Trouble with Quantum Computing and Q-Day Predictions](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-predictions/): The trouble with quantum computing predictions so far has been that too many have been more speculation than science...
- [Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) Review Praising the Tool Questioning the Demo](https://postquantum.com/q-day/qtt-criticism/): The Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) is a newly released open-source tool by Cambridge Consultants and the University of Edinburgh...
- [Quantum Tech and Espionage: What Every Researcher Must Know](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/espionage-quantum/): To the untrained eye, espionage against scientists can be nearly invisible - it blends into everyday academic or business activity. Certain red flags...
- [IBM Launches Heron R3 (ibm_pittsburgh): ~350 µS T2 and a Quality Upgrade for Its 156‑Qubit Platform](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r3-pittsburgh/): IBM has rolled out Heron r3, a new revision of its Heron processor family, debuting on the IBM Quantum Platform as ibm_pittsburgh in late July 2025.
- [Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Act: U.S. Senate Ramps Up Push for Post-Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/quantum-cybersecurity-migration-act/): On July 31, 2025, U.S. Senators Peters (D-Mich.) and Blackburn (R-Tenn.) introduced the National Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Strategy Act
- [The Nervous System of Quantum Computing: A Deep Dive into Quantum Control Systems](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/dive-quantum-control-systems/): If the quantum processor is the brain of a quantum computer, the control system is its nervous system - the intricate wiring that converts intention...
- [Quantum Sensing and AI for Drone and Nano-Drone Detection](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-ai-drones/): Quantum sensing technologies are emerging as powerful tools to detect and track UASs, including small and nano-drones that often...
- [Securing Quantum Readiness Budget Now](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/securing-quantum-readiness-budget/): From a CISO and business leadership perspective, the ask is clear: we need to secure budget and resources now to begin the multi-year journey...
- [Board AI Governance and Oversight](https://postquantum.com/leadership/ai-board-oversight/): AI is reshaping businesses across industries, and corporate boards are increasingly expected to oversee AI strategy, ethics, and risk management
- [Alliances as "Sovereignty Multipliers"](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/alliances-sovereignty/): Turning strategic alignment into real technological capability requires deliberate mechanisms at the alliance level.
- [Risk-Driven Strategies for Quantum Readiness When Full Crypto Inventory Isn’t Feasible](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/risk-driven-quantum-crypto-inventory/): Organizations may need to begin their quantum-readiness journey with a risk-driven approach rather than a theoretically perfect one.
- [Quantum Art](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-art/): Quantum Art is an Israeli quantum computing startup focused on developing scalable trapped-ion hardware for quantum computers.
- [What is the Quantum Threat? A Guide for C‑Suite Executives and Boards](https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-threat-executives-board/): Boards do not need to dive into the scientific intricacies of qubits and algorithms, but they do need to recognize that this is an important risk...
- [Future Encrypted: Post-Quantum Cryptography Tops the Cyber Agenda - Key Insights for CISOs](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/future-encrypted-pqc/): A new Capgemini Research Institute report, “Future Encrypted: Why Post-Quantum Cryptography Tops the New Cybersecurity Agenda”, reveals...
- [Microsoft’s Majorana‑1 Chip Demonstrates X and Z Loop Parity Measurements](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/microsofts-majorana1-chip-data/): Microsoft’s Azure Quantum team has released a new scientific paper - Distinct Lifetimes for X and Z Loop Measurements in a Majorana Tetron Device
- [Quantum-Readiness Roadmap: BIS Calls Finance to Prepare for the Post-Quantum Era](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/bis-quantum-roadmap-banking/): On July 7, 2025 the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) published a major paper titled “Quantum-readiness for the financial system: a roadmap"
- [How CISOs Can Use Quantum Readiness to Secure Bigger Budgets (and Fix Today’s Problems)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-ciso-budget/): Quantum readiness is not an exercise in science fiction – it’s a very practical program that yields benefits immediately...
- [Quantum Brilliance](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-brilliance/): Quantum Brilliance (QB) is an Australian-German quantum computing company developing diamond-based quantum accelerators...
- [CRQC Readiness Benchmark – Benchmarking Quantum Computers on the Path to Breaking Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark/): Benchmarking quantum capabilities for cryptography is both critical and challenging. We can’t rely on any single metric like qubit count...
- [Quantum Europe Strategy: Europe’s Five-Pillar Plan to Lead the Quantum Revolution](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/quantum-europe-strategy/): On July 2, 2025, the European Commission unveiled the Quantum Europe Strategy – a comprehensive roadmap
- [Future of Leadership and Consulting in the Age of AI: A Decade On](https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-of-leadership-in-the-age-of-ai-decade/): Exactly ten years ago, on July 3, 2015, we published the first version of Future of Leadership in the Age of AI. At that time...
- [Quantum Circuits Inc (QCI)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-circuits/): Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI) is a Yale University spin-out that has pioneered a novel approach to superconducting quantum computing...
- [QuiX Quantum](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quix-quantum/): QuiX Quantum is a Dutch quantum technology company specializing in photonic quantum computing hardware. Founded in 2019...
- [Quantinuum’s Breakthrough Sets Course for Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing by 2029](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantinuum-magic-states/): Quantinuum announced a significant technical breakthrough: the company claims to have overcome the “last major hurdle” on the path to scalable
- [Quantum Readiness / PQC Migration Is The Largest, Most Complex IT/OT Overhaul Ever - So Why Wait?](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-pqc-migration/): Quantum readiness / PQC migration is arguably the largest and most complicated digital infrastructure overhaul in history. Yes, far bigger than Y2K...
- [Preparing for the Quantum Age – U.S. Congressional Hearing Recap and Analysis](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/preparing-for-the-quantum-age-hearing/): On June 24, 2025, a House Oversight Subcommittee held a hearing titled “Preparing for the Quantum Age: When Cryptography Breaks.”
- [Why AI Cannot Break Modern Encryption](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-break-encryption/): AI cannot break modern encryption. The reasons are fundamental: Mathematical Hardness, Cryptographic Design...
- [Government of Canada Launches Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Migration Roadmap](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/canada-pqc-roadmap/): On June 23, 2025 Canada has issued a new roadmap for migrating the Government of Canada’s IT systems to post-quantum cryptography (PQC).
- [The U.S. GAO Publishes a Quantum Threat Report - Right on Strategy but Wrong on Timing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/us-gao-quantum-report/): The U.S. GAO has issued a June 2025 report titled “Quantum Computing: Leadership Needed to Coordinate Cyber Threat Mitigation Strategy”
- [What It Will Actually Cost to Break RSA-2048: Energy, Hardware, People, and the Bill Nobody's Talking About](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/total-cost-breaking-rsa-2048-crqc/): Breaking one RSA-2048 key on a CRQC could cost $2–5 million when you add up energy, amortization, personnel, and facilities
- [EU Commission Roadmap Targets 2030 for Post-Quantum Cryptography Transition](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/eu-pqc-roadmap/): On June 23, 2025, the European Commission and EU Member States unveiled a roadmap to transition Europe to post-quantum cryptography (PQC)
- [Microsoft Unveils New 4D Quantum Error-Correcting Codes](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/microsoft-4d-quantum-error-correction/): Microsoft Quantum's researchers have introduced a new family of four-dimensional (4D) geometric quantum error-correcting codes
- [IonQ’s 2025 Roadmap: Toward a Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer by 2028](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ionqroadmap-crqc/): IonQ has unveiled an accelerated quantum computing roadmap that, if realized, could deliver a CRQC by 2028...
- [Q-Day Revisited - RSA-2048 Broken by 2030: Detailed Analysis](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-rsa-broken-2030/): It’s time to mark a controversial date on the calendar: 2030 is the year RSA-2048 will be broken by a quantum computer - or the Q-Day.
- [Oxford Ionics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oxford-ionics/): Oxford Ionics is a UK-based quantum computing company specializing in trapped-ion technology, distinguished by its use of microwave-based...
- [“Tour de Gross” Bets That High‑Rate QLDPC Modules Can Beat the Surface Code on Qubit Economics - If Inter‑Module Measurements and Links Can Catch Up.](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/tour-de-gross/): The June 2025 preprint “Tour de gross” proposes the bicycle architecture: a modular, long‑range‑connected fault‑tolerant quantum computing stack
- [IBM’s Roadmap to Large-Scale Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC) by 2029 – News & Analysis](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-quantum-roadmap-2029/): June 10 2025 IBM made a landmark announcement outlining a clear path to build the world’s first large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer...
- [Oxford Achieves 10⁻⁷-Level Qubit Gate Error, Shattering Quantum Fidelity Records](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/oxford-qubit-gate-error/): Physicists at the University of Oxford have set a new world record for quantum logic accuracy, achieving single-qubit gate error rates below 10^-7
- [A Reality Check on Forbes’ "20 Real-World Quantum Computing Applications"](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/forbes-20-quantum-computing/): A few of Forbes’s examples are genuinely promising; several smash together disparate ideas without noting the engineering road‑map...
- [Trump’s New Cybersecurity Order – What Changed and Why It Matters - Quantum Perspective](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/trump-cybersecurity-order-quantum/): On June 6, 2025, President Donald J. Trump signed Executive Order titled “Sustaining Select Efforts to Strengthen the Nation’s Cybersecurity”
- [Cryptographic Inventory Vendors and Methodologies](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-inventory-vendors/): Achieving a comprehensive cryptographic inventory often requires combining multiple tools and methodologies. Each solution...
- [What Is Q-Day (Y2Q)?](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q/): Q-Day, sometimes called “Y2Q” or the “Quantum Apocalypse”, refers to the future moment when a quantum computer becomes powerful enough
- [Deep-Tech Commercialization Challenges in the EU](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/deep-tech-commercialization-eu/): Europe is a global powerhouse in deep-tech research - from quantum breakthroughs to biotech - yet it struggles to turn this scientific excellence...
- [Quantum Breakthrough Slashes Qubit Needs for RSA-2048 Factoring](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-breakthrough-rsa-2048/): A new breakthrough research preprint by Google Quantum AI scientist Craig Gidney has dramatically lowered the estimated resources...
- [IonQ](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ionq/): IonQ is a publicly traded leader in trapped‑ion quantum computing whose strategy is to reach useful fault tolerance with fewer physical qubits...
- [IQM](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/iqm/): IQM Quantum Computers is a Finland‑based hardware company building superconducting (transmon) quantum processors...
- [Microsoft](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/microsoft/): Microsoft Majorana Topological Quantum Computing
- [Nord Quantique](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/nord-quantique/): Nord Quantique is a Canadian quantum computing startup focused on building fault-tolerant quantum computers through innovative...
- [Pasqal](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/pasqal/): Pasqal is a French pioneer in neutral-atom quantum computing, building large, reconfigurable arrays of laser‑trapped Rydberg atoms
- [PsiQuantum](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/psiquantum/): PsiQuantum is a Silicon Valley-based startup taking a fundamentally different approach: photonic quantum computing.
- [QuEra Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quera/): QuEra Computing is a Boston-based quantum computing company pioneering neutral-atom quantum processors.
- [Rigetti](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/rigetti/): Rigetti Computing is a full-stack quantum hardware company specializing in superconducting qubit processors.
- [Xanadu](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/xanadu/): Xanadu is a Toronto-based quantum computing company pioneering photonic (light-based) quantum processors.
- [Quantum Computing Inc](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-computing-inc/): Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) is a young entrant in the quantum computing race that has charted a strikingly different course from its larger rivals.
- [Quantinuum](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantinuum/): Quantinuum, formed by the 2021 merger of Honeywell Quantum Solutions and Cambridge Quantum, is another leader in trapped-ion
- [Quantum Winter Warning: Why Overhype and the QCI Saga Could Chill Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-winter-warning/): The saga of Quantum Computing Inc. is a stark illustration of what happens when hype becomes unmoored from truth.
- [Global Quantum Innovation Ecosystems: Lessons for TTOs from Around the World](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/global-quantum-innovation/): For universities and tech transfer offices (TTOs), understanding global diverse quantum innovation ecosystems is more than a matter of curiosity...
- [Fujitsu](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/fujitsu/): Fujitsu, a Japanese IT and computing giant, has emerged as a serious player in quantum computing through a multi-pronged strategy spanning...
- [Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oqc/): Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC) is a UK-based quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-out from the University of Oxford.
- [ORCA Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/orca-computing/): ORCA Computing is a U.K.-based quantum computing company that builds photonic quantum processors using light (single photons)...
- [Dutch Quantum Ecosystem Unveils “Tuna-5” Open-Architecture Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-computer-tuna-5/): The Dutch quantum computing community has reached a new milestone, revealing a homegrown quantum computer named Tuna-5.
- [Quantum Readiness Assessment (QRA)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-assessment/): A Quantum Readiness Assessment (QRA) is an in-depth review of an organization’s preparedness for the advent of quantum computing...
- [Planqc](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/planqc/): Planqc is a Munich-based quantum computing startup developing a neutral-atom quantum computing platform
- [Quandela](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quandela/): Quandela is a French quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-off from the Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (C2N)
- [Intel](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/intel/): Intel’s quantum computing program has carved a distinctive path, marrying cutting-edge quantum research with the might of silicon manufacturing
- [Amazon AWS](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/amazon-aws/): Amazon has taken a dual approach to quantum computing, combining cutting-edge hardware research with commercial cloud services.
- [Atom Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/atom-computing/): Atom Computing is a fast-rising startup developing gate-based quantum computers using optically trapped neutral atoms as qubits.
- [D-Wave Systems](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/d-wave/): D-Wave Systems is a pioneer in quantum computing known for its unique focus on quantum annealing - a specialized analog approach...
- [Diraq](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/diraq/): Diraq is an Australian quantum computing startup focused on building large-scale quantum processors based on silicon-based spin qubits.
- [Google](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/google/): Google is a frontrunner in the quest to build practical quantum computers. The company made headlines in 2019 by achieving quantum supremacy...
- [IBM](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ibm/): IBM has laid out one of the most detailed and aggressive quantum computing roadmaps in the industry. Over the past few years, IBM Quantum...
- [Aegiq](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/aegiq/): Aegiq is a UK-based quantum technology startup that focuses on building full-stack photonic quantum computing systems
- [Infleqtion](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/infleqtion/): Infleqtion (formerly ColdQuanta) is a leading quantum technology company focused on gate-based quantum computing built on neutral atoms
- [Alice & Bob](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/alice-bob/): Alice & Bob is a Paris-based quantum computing startup focused on building a universal, fault-tolerant quantum computer using a novel “cat qubit”
- [Quantum Human Capital Controls as Geopolitics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-human-capital-geopolitics/): Quantum sovereignty is talent-constrained. In the race for quantum technology leadership, a skilled workforce has become a strategic asset...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Superconducting Cat Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-cat-qubits/): Superconducting cat qubits are an emerging approach to quantum computing that still uses superconducting circuits but encodes each qubit...
- [Europe's New Cryptographic Rulebook Just Made PQC Official](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/eu-cryptographic-rulebook-pqc/): Europe's new cryptographic rulebook makes PQC algorithms "recommended" for the first time, mandates hybrid deployments for lattice-based...
- [The Enormous Energy Cost of Breaking RSA‑2048 with Quantum Computers](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/energy-cost-rsa-2048-quantum/): The energy requirements for breaking RSA-2048 with a quantum computer underscore how different the post-quantum threat is...
- [Building the Quantum Workforce: Talent Challenges and Opportunities](https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-workforce-talent/): Amid quantum revolution, a bottleneck has emerged: a lack of skilled people. In fact, the quantum talent shortage is now seen as one...
- [The Many Faces of Decoherence](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/many-faces-decoherence/): Quantum computers hold enormous promise, but they face a stubborn adversary: decoherence. This is the process by which a qubit’s...
- [What Quantum Computers Can Do Better Than Classical Computers](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-classical/): Quantum computers already outperform classical computers on a few specialized tasks, and over the coming years that list of tasks will grow...
- [The Rise of Logical Qubits: How Quantum Computers Fight Errors](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/logical-qubits/): Logical qubits are the linchpin for delivering on the promise of quantum computing. They are the qubits as we wish we had them...
- [SC081v3 and the 47‑Day Certificate Era: What the CA/B Forum Just Set in Motion](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/sc081v3-47day-certificate/): On April 11, 2025, the CA/Browser Forum published Ballot SC081v3, “Introduce Schedule of Reducing Validity and Data Reuse Periods,”
- [Quantum Patents and IP Strategy: Safeguarding Innovation in a Crowded Field](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-patents-ip/): Patents, when aligned with business goals, can attract investment, deter infringement, and provide leverage for collaboration. TTOs and innovators...
- [Breaking RSA Encryption: Quantum Hype Meets Reality (2022-2025)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/breaking-rsa-quantum-hype/): If you encrypted a message with an RSA-2048 public key today, no one on Earth knows how to factor it with currently available technology...
- [NIST PQC Security Strength Categories (1–5) Explained](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nist-pqc-security-categories/): As part of its post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization, NIST introduced five security strength categories (often labeled Levels 1-5)
- [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Standardization - 2025 Update](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-pqc-nist/): Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is here - not in theory, but in practice. We have concrete algorithms, with standards guiding their implementation
- [PQC Is Necessary, But Not Sufficient - Building Quantum Resilience the Right Way](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-not-everything/): Simply "dropping in" PQC algorithms will not magically make systems quantum-safe. Real security hinges on how these new primitives are...
- [ETSI publishes TS 103 744 v1.2.1: Hybrid key establishment for the quantum transition](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/etsi-hybrid-key-establishment/): ETSI’s Technical Committee CYBER has released ETSI TS 103 744 V1.2.1, a technical specification for quantum‑safe hybrid key establishment—methods that combine classical elliptic‑curve Diffie‑Hellman (ECDH) with post‑quantum key encapsulation (ML‑KEM) to derive shared keys that remain secure even if one component is later broken. The new version codifies two combiner constructions, enumerates fixed parameter sets, and ships with test vectors and a reference implementation to speed adoption.
- [UK NCSC Releases "Timelines for migration to post-quantum cryptography"](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/uk-ncsc-timelines-pqc/): London, UK (NCSC) - The UK’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) this week unveiled new guidance on timelines for migrating...
- [Jinan-1’s real-time QKD demo is a "practicality milestone," not just a distance headline](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsatellite-qkd-record/): A new Nature paper highlights what might be the most “deployment-shaped” leap in satellite quantum key distribution (QKD)...
- [New Study Shows Post‑Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Doesn’t Have to Sacrifice Performance](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/new-pqc-performance/): The new performance analysis of Kyber and Dilithium is a welcome addition to the PQC literature. It confirms that post‑quantum security...
- [Quantum Readiness: What Crypto Exchanges Should Do Today](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-crypto-exchanges/): Preparing for quantum computing is a grand challenge, but it’s one that crypto exchanges can tackle step by step. By addressing off-chain...
- [Why I Founded Applied Quantum - The First Pure-Play, End-to-End Quantum Consultancy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/applied-quantum-focused/): Applied Quantum is the first and only end-to-end pure-play 100% quantum--focused professional services firm...
- [Quantum Programming: An In-Depth Introduction and Framework Comparison](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-programming/): Quantum programming is an emerging discipline that challenges developers to think beyond classical bits and deterministic algorithms...
- [How Quantum Could Break Through Amdahl’s Law and Computing’s Limits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-amdahls-law/): A fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get...
- [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in South Korea](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-south-korea/): South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy...
- [D-Wave Claims Quantum Supremacy with Quantum Annealing](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-quantum-advantage/): D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy”
- [NIST Picks HQC as New Post-Quantum Encryption Candidate](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-hqc-pqc/): NIST has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4...
- [Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing (FTQC) with Erasure Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/fault-tolerant-erasure-qubits/): Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering...
- [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in the Middle East](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-middle-east/): Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI...
- [The Race Toward FTQC: Ocelot, Majorana, Willow, Heron, Zuchongzhi](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fault-tolerant-quantum-race/): Race to fault-tolerant quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses...
- [Zuchongzhi 3.0 Quantum Chip: Technical Analysis and Implications](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-3-0-quantum-chip/): China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor
- [Quantum Geopolitics: The Global Race for Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-geopolitics/): Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications...
- [Physics at the Heart of the New Cold War](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/physics-quantum-cold-war/): In the 21st century, cutting-edge physics has moved from the laboratory into the realm of high geopolitics. Breakthroughs in quantum computing...
- [AI and Quantum Sensing: A Perfect Synergy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ai-quantum-sensing/): AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest...
- [Financing the Quantum Leap: Funding Strategies for University Spin‑offs](https://postquantum.com/leadership/funding-quantum-startups/): In the end, funding a quantum leap is about building bridges – between lab and market, between public and private interests, and between...
- [AWS Announces Ocelot Chip for Ultra-Reliable Qubits](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/aws-ocelot-quantum-chip/): Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone...
- [Quantum Use Cases in Telecom](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-telecom/): Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we operate networks
- [QuantWare unveils Contralto‑A, a QPU designed for quantum error correction experiments](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantware-contralto-a-qpu/): QuantWare has introduced Contralto‑A, a new superconducting quantum processing unit aimed specifically at advancing practical QEC...
- [Silicon Runs Its First Real Algorithm: Grover's Search on Four Qubits With Every Gate Above Threshold](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-grovers-algorithm-four-qubits/): Silicon Quantum Computing demonstrates Grover's search algorithm on a four-qubit silicon processor with ~95% success rate...
- [Microsoft’s Majorana-Based Quantum Chip - Beyond the Hype](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana-1-hype/): In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design...
- [Quantum of Flapdoodle: A Guide to Quantum Hype and Scams](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-of-bullshit/): The gap between the hard reality of quantum engineering and the sensational way it’s often portrayed has created a fertile breeding ground...
- [Executive Order 14144: Biden’s Big Swing at Cybersecurity Modernization](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/executive-order-14144-quantum/): On January 16 2025 President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14144, “Strengthening and Promoting Innovation in the Nation’s Cybersecurity.”
- [Quantum Use Cases in Healthcare & Medical Research](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-healthcare/): Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point...
- [Hybrid Cryptography for the Post-Quantum Era](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/hybrid-cryptography-pqc/): By combining classical and post-quantum cryptographic primitives in tandem, hybrid schemes provide defense-in-depth during this transition...
- [NIST Releases NIST SP 800-227 IPD](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-sp-800-227-ipd/): NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project
- [Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) 101: A Guide for Cybersecurity Professionals](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-key-distribution-qkd-cyber/): Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a security technology that leverages quantum physics to enable two parties to share secret encryption keys
- [First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 by Quantum Computer? Not Even Close!](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/factorization-rsa-2048-chinese-claim/): Chinese researchers published “A First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 Integer by D-Wave Quantum Computer.” Not even close!
- [Entropy-Driven Photonic Quantum Computing: A Critical Look at QCI’s Approach](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/entropy-quantum-computing-qci/): Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) has introduced an unconventional paradigm in quantum computing called Entropy Quantum Computing (EQC)
- [From NISQ to FTQC to FASQ](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/nisq-ftqc-fasq/): We are transitioning from the NISQ era into the realm of FTQC, with an eye on the ultimate prize dubbed FASQ
- [Google AI’s Surface Code Breaks the Quantum Error Threshold](https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/google-surface-code-threshold/): In a landmark experiment, Google Quantum AI researchers have demonstrated the first quantum memory operating below the QEC threshold...
- [Russia Unveils First 50-Qubit Quantum Computer Prototype](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/russia-50-qubit-quantum/): Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap...
- [China’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum/): For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope...
- [Quantum Technology Initiatives in Singapore and ASEAN](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-singapore-asean/): ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s...
- [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Russia](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-russia/): Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics...
- [Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE) Breakthroughs](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/variational-quantum-eigensolver-vqe/): The Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), introduced in 2014, has rapidly become a flagship algorithm for simulating ground-state properties...
- [Tianyan-504 Goes Live: China's 504-Qubit Quantum Computer Joins the Cloud](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/tianyan-504/): China's 504-qubit Tianyan-504 goes live on the Tianyan quantum cloud, making it one of the largest commercially accessible quantum processors
- [Quantum Contrarianism](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-contrarianism/): Contrarianism in quantum tech, as in any tech, is best viewed as a tool, not a truth. It’s a tool for questioning and refining the narrative...
- [Google Announces Willow Quantum Chip](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-willow-quantum-chip/): Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing...
- [Quantum Technologies and Cybersecurity: Threats and Defenses](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cybersecurity/): Quantum technologies introduce a new era for cybersecurity – one that is simultaneously perilous and full of potential.
- [Quantum Computing Benchmarks: RCS, QV, AQ, and More](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-benchmarks/): Researchers have developed specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance...
- [Adiabatic Quantum (AQC) and Cyber (2024 Update)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/adiabatic-quantum-annealing-cyber/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem...
- [Quantum Technology Initiatives in Europe and EU](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-europe-eu/): Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor...
- [IBM Unveils 156-Qubit ‘Heron R2’ Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r2-quantum/): IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor - Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio
- [Quantum Hacking: Cybersecurity of Quantum Systems](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-hacking/): While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity  . As quantum computing moves into cloud...
- [NIST IR 8547: A Roadmap for Transitioning to Post‑Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/nist-ir-8547-ipd/): In November 2024, the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) released NIST Internal Report 8547 (Initial Public Draft)
- [Banque de France & MAS Complete Landmark Post-Quantum Email Security Experiment](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/banque-de-france-mas-pqc/): The Banque de France (BDF) and the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) have successfully completed a groundbreaking...
- [The Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) – A Beginner’s Guide](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-approximate-optimization-algorithm-qaoa/): At its core, QAOA is a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that constructs a special kind of quantum circuit (or “ansatz”) to represent...
- [Quantum AI (QAI): Harnessing Quantum Computing for AI (2024 Update)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-ai-qai/): Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with capabilities of AI...
- [Quantum Sensing - Key Use Cases](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-use-cases/): At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately...
- [CISA’s Post-Quantum OT Guidance: Key Takeaways and Next Steps for CISOs](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/dhs-cisa-pqc-ot/): CISA released a landmark report titled ”Post-Quantum Considerations for Operational Technology.” This publication marks the first...
- [Guide to Quantum ML for Data Scientists](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-machine-learning-qml/): Quantum Machine Learning (Quantum ML or QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional ML
- [Closing the Gap Between AI Principles and AI Reality](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-principles-reality-gap/): Organizations must embrace both the ethical principles that guide responsible development and the technical rigor required to secure AI systems...
- [Gartner just put a date on the quantum threat - and it’s sooner than many think](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/gartner-quantum-pqc/): Gartner just published a clear, plain‑English call to action on post‑quantum cryptography (PQC). The headline message is...
- [G7 Cyber Experts Warn Financial Sector: Prepare Now for Quantum Computing’s Opportunities and Threats](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/g7-cyber-quantum/): A recent statement by the G7 Cyber Expert Group (CEG) sounds a dual alarm and call to action on quantum computing. In a memo...
- [Career Opportunities in Quantum Technologies (No PhD Required)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/careers-quantum/): The landscape of careers in quantum technologies is incredibly rich and expanding by the day. What was once the domain of a few physicists...
- [Quantum Ethics: Why We Must Plan for a Responsible Quantum Future](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-ethics/): New technologies bring not only breakthroughs but also new risks and dilemmas - and quantum computing is no exception.
- [Australia Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-australia/): Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning...
- [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Meets Quantum AI (QAI)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-quantum-ai-qai/): Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity...
- [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Aerospace & Automotive](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-aerospace-automotive/): Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation...
- [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Finance & Banking](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-finance-banking/): Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector...
- [India Tests First Indigenous 6-Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/india-6-qubit-quantum-processor/): India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting...
- [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Government & Defense](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-government-defense/): Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises...
- [Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible, Safe, Secure AI](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/responsible-ai-secure-ai/): Addressing the Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible AI, Trustworthy AI, Secure AI, Ethical AI, and Safe AI Explained
- [Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in the USA](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/us-quantum/): The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system...
- [CISA Unveils Plan to Automate Post-Quantum Crypto Inventory](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cisa-automate-crypto-inventory/): CISA has released a “Strategy for Migrating to Automated Post-Quantum Cryptography Discovery and Inventory Tools”
- [NIST Unveils Post‑Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Standards](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-pqc-standards/): NIST has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms...
- [Myths and Realities of Quantum Commercialization](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/myths-quantum-commercialization/): Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty...
- [Quantum Computing & Quantum Technology Initiatives in Canada](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-canada/): Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal...
- [White House PQC Cost Estimate: $7.1B to Migrate Federal Civilian System](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/white-house-pqc-estimate/): A new July 2024 report puts a rough, government-wide price tag of ~$7.1B (2024 dollars) on PQC migration for prioritized federal...
- [Data Discovery & Classification: Foundations for Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/data-discovery-classification-quantum/): As organizations brace for cryptography-breaking quantum computers, they must first discover and classify their data to understand what’s at stake.
- [Quantum-as-a-Service (QaaS)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-as-a-service-qaas/): Quantum-as-a-Service (QaaS) - also called Quantum Computing as a Service (QCaaS) - is essentially cloud-based access to quantum...
- [RSA-2048 Within Reach of 1730 Qubits. Or is it?](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/rsa-2048-1730-qubits/): The paper’s main claim: by using approximate residue arithmetic and other optimizations, one can factor RSA-2048 with around 1730 logical qubits...
- [Israel’s IQCC Opens as a “Quantum Data Center” Built for Interoperability, Hybrid HPC, and Sovereignty](https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/israels-iqcc-quantum-data-center/): In a June 17, 2024 press release, Quantum Machines announced the opening of the Israeli Quantum Computing Center (IQCC)...
- [NIST to Release PQC Algorithms in the Summer](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-pqc-summer/): The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks...
- [Bridging the Quantum Lab-to-Market Gap: How External Experts Boost Tech Transfer](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-external-tto/): Quantum’s big wins will come from breaking silos and working together. Universities, TTOs, scientists, entrepreneurs, investors...
- [Quantum Computing Use Cases in Materials & Chemicals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-materials-chemicals/): Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering.
- [China Unveils Xiaohong: A 504-Qubit Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-xiaohong/): Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip...
- [Hole-Spin Qubits Demonstrated in Silicon FinFETs](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/hole-spin-qubits/): Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by demonstrating a controllable interaction between hole-spin qubits...
- [From Lab Breakthroughs to Quantum Boom: Why the Time to Commercialize is Now](https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-commercialization/): External quantum commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the expertise that most academic teams lack...
- [Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) Deep-Dive](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-bill-of-materials-cbom/): Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) represent the next evolution in software transparency and security risk management...
- [Major Leap for Quantum Internet: First Critical Connection](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/imperial-quantum-internet/): In a pioneering achievement, researchers have established a crucial connection necessary for the quantum internet...
- [Capability E.1: Engineering Scale & Manufacturability](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/manufacturability/): Building a cryptography-breaking quantum computer (often dubbed Q-Day) will demand far more than just better algorithms or a few more qubits.
- [Capability B.4: Qubit Connectivity & Routing Efficiency](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qubit-connectivity/): Qubit connectivity refers to which qubits can interact directly (perform two-qubit gates) with each other. This is often visualized as a connectivity...
- [How to Perform a Comprehensive Quantum Readiness Cryptographic Inventory](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptographic-inventory/): A cryptographic inventory is essentially a complete map of all cryptography used in an organization’s systems – and it is vital for understanding...
- [EU Publishes a Recommendation on Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/eu-recommendation-post-quantum/): EU publishes "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography"
- [New Legislation to Boost U.S. DoD Quantum Capabilities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/dod-quantum-bill/): A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's integration of quantum
- [Quantum Sovereignty Primer: Inside the New Tech Arms Race](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty-intro/): The term quantum sovereignty has entered the geopolitical lexicon, capturing the idea that nations must control their own quantum technologies...
- [The Quantum Computer That Breaks Your Encryption Won't Be a Single Chip](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/heterogenous-quantum-computer/): The quantum computer that breaks your encryption won't be a single chip. It will be a heterogeneous system of specialized QPUs...
- [The Dual Risks of AI Autonomous Robots: Uncontrollable AI Meets Cyber-Kinetic Risks](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/risks-ai-autonomous-robots/): Can we afford to relinquish control of robots to an AI whose behavior we have yet to learn how to govern with certainty?
- [The Board’s Evolving Cybersecurity Mandate: From Oversight to Accountability](https://postquantum.com/leadership/boards-cybersecurity/): Cybersecurity has swiftly moved from an IT issue to a core boardroom concern. Regulators around are increasingly holding boards...
- [Microsoft Announces Record Breaking Logical Qubit Results](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/logical-qubit-microsoft/): Microsoft and Quantinuum announced a significant achievement in quantum computing, demonstrating the most reliable logical qubits on record
- [Infrastructure Challenges of "Dropping In" Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/infrastructure-challenges-pqc/): Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is moving from theory to practice. NIST has now standardized several PQC algorithms
- [Digital Actions, Lethal Consequences: A Cyber-Kinetic Risk Primer](https://postquantum.com/uncategorized/cyber-kinetic-risk-primer/): Our physical world is becoming more connected – which makes it more dependent on the cyber world. Many physical objects...
- [Quantum Technologies and Quantum Computing in Switzerland](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-switzerland/): Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative...
- [Fortifying the Future: Cyber-Kinetic Risks in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's (KSA) Technological Zeitgeist](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-saudi-ksa/): To fortify its cyber-kinetic defenses in line with growing digital transformation and infrastructural expansions, Saudi Arabia must adopt...
- [4,099 Qubits: The Myth and Reality of Breaking RSA-2048 with Quantum Computers](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/4099-qubits-rsa/): 4,099 is the widely cited number of quantum bits one would need to factor a 2048-bit RSA key using Shor’s algorithm – in other words...
- [Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) Quantum Risk Advisory](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/mas-quantum-advisory/): Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issues "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum"
- [Telecom’s Quantum‑Safe Imperative: Challenges in Adopting Post‑Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/telecom-pqc-challenges/): The race is on to quantum‑proof the world’s telecom networks. With cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) projected to arrive...
- [Creativity is Not as Uniquely Humans as We Think](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-asi-creativity/): For years, creativity has been held up as the last bastion of human uniqueness. A mysterious force that AI could never replicate. Our moat against AI
- [Quantum Repeaters: The Key to Long-Distance Quantum Comms](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-repeaters/): Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which qubits can be sent
- [Quantum Technologies & Quantum Computing in the UK](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-united-kingdom/): The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation.
- [Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction by Nord Quantique](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/error-correction-nord-quantique/): Researchers from Nord Quantique have developed an innovative error correction system that drastically reduces the number of qubits needed...
- [NATO publishes first Quantum Technologies Strategy, pledging a “quantum-ready” Alliance and a shift to quantum-safe crypto](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nato-quantum-technologies-strategy/): NATO has released a public summary of its first Quantum Technologies Strategy, signalling that the Alliance now treats quantum as...
- [Origin Quantum’s Wukong: China’s 72-Qubit Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/origin-quantum-wukong/): In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit...
- [The DiVincenzo Criteria: Blueprint for Building a Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/divincenzo-quantum-computer/): In the late 1990s, physicist David DiVincenzo outlined a set of conditions - now known as DiVincenzo’s criteria...
- [What is Entanglement-as-a-Service (EaaS)?](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-service-eaas/): Entanglement-as-a-Service (EAAS) is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly...
- [Quantum Computing Risks to Cryptocurrencies - Bitcoin, Ethereum, and Beyond](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptocurrencies-bitcoin/): Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum derive their security from cryptographic algorithms – mathematical puzzles...
- [Quantum Sensing and Navigation as Sovereignty](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sensing-navigation-sovereignty/): Quantum sensing leverages quantum phenomena (entanglement, superposition, etc.) to achieve measurement precision beyond classical limits...
- [Marin's Statement on AI Risks](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/marin-statement-on-ai-risk/): The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded, non-aligned, recursive self-improvement and disseminating new capabilities to other AIs is a concern
- [India’s Quantum Computing and Quantum Technology Initiatives](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-india/): India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining...
- [Rethinking Crypto-Agility](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/rethinking-crypto-agility/): At its core, crypto-agility means being able to swiftly swap out cryptographic algorithms or implementations when weaknesses emerge.
- [Law Enforcement in the Quantum Computing Era](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/law-enforcement-quantum/): Law enforcement agencies occupy a unique position in the context of the quantum threat. They are both protectors of...
- [IBM Unveils Next-Gen 133-Qubit ‘Heron’ Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-133-qubit-heron-quantum/): IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances....
- [NIST Releases SP 1800-38: A Roadmap for Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-sp-1800-38-pqc-release/): The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) unveiled Special Publication (SP) 1800-38
- [2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantum-threat-timeline-report/): 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing
- [Quantum in Space: Satellites, Timing, and the Geopolitics of Global Quantum Infrastructure](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-in-space/): Space turns the quantum race into an infrastructure competition. What began as a laboratory contest for quantum computing and communications...
- [Neutral Atoms Cross a Fault-Tolerance Milestone - This Time With Logical Control](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/neutral-atoms-fault-tolerance/): The Harvard-MIT-QuEra team led by Mikhail Lukin published what I consider one of the most consequential neutral‑atom results to date...
- [IBM Unveils Condor: 1,121‑Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-condor/): IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date.
- [Mapping Dark Web SIM Swapping Economy](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/sim-swapping-economy/): Modern, high-stakes SIM-swapping is increasingly taking the form of an organized conspiracy, with multiple threat actors operating as a gang...
- [Cybersecurity Negligence and Personal Liability: What CISOs and Board Members Need to Know](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/ciso-negligence-personal-liability/): “Could I personally be sued or fined if our company gets breached?” This uneasy question is crossing the minds of many CISOs
- [The Skill Stack a CISO Needs for Crypto‑Agility and Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/skills-crypto-quantum-readiness/): The path to quantum readiness is navigable with the right combination of skills, planning, and proactive execution. By leveraging existing...
- [Quantum Security: Understanding the Terminology and Context](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-security-terminology/): "Quantum security" is a term that is increasingly being used. With everyone having their own definition of the term.
- [Upgrading Operational Technology (OT) Systems to Post‑Quantum Cryptography (PQC): Challenges and Strategies](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/ot-pqc-challenges/): Operational Technology (OT) environments, such as industrial control systems and critical infrastructure, are especially at risk
- [UK NCS Issues Guidance on Preparing for PQC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/uk-ncsc-post-quantum-cryptography/): The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography,"
- [Verified Crypto Account Listings Proliferate on the Dark Web](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/verified-crypto-accounts-dark-web/): Verified crypto-exchange accounts have become a hot commodity on the dark web, with login credentials available for as little as $20...
- [Taxonomy of Quantum Computing: Modalities & Architectures](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/taxonomy-modalities/): Why multiple quantum computing paradigms? The goal is the same – realize a scalable, universal quantum computer – but the approaches differ...
- [99.5% Fidelity in Neutral-Atom Qubits Achieved](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quera-neutral-atom/): A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99.5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Photonic Cluster-State](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-cluster-state/): Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons that have been...
- [Over 1,000 Controllable Atomic Qubits Achieved](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/1000-atomic-qubits/): Over 1,000 controllable atomic qubits in one single plane achieved by researchers from TU Darmstadt in Germany. As published in arXiv for now...
- [Quantum Risk: The Coming Cryptography Reckoning](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-risk/): Quantum risk has moved from theoretical to tangible: while quantum computers today remain too primitive to break modern ciphers, experts...
- [Quantum Memories in Quantum Networking and Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-memories/): Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Ion Trap and Neutral Atom MBQC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/ion-trap-neutral-atom-mbqc/): Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms...
- [Quantum LiDAR vs. Quantum Radar](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-lidar-quantum-radar/): Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology...
- [Jiuzhang 3.0: China’s Photonic Quantum Computer](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-3/): Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons...
- [Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) for an Open RAN-Based Telecom RAN](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cbom-open-ran-telecom/): Based on anonymized results of a project, I will try to illustrate key parts of a comprehensive Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) for a telecom...
- [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Energy & Utilities](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-energy-utilities/): Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Superconducting Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-qubits/): Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction...
- [Quantum Use Cases in Pharma & Biotech](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-use-cases-pharma-biotech/): Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharma and biotech industries. Its ability to tackle problems...
- [Quantum Baloney Detection Toolkit](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-baloney-detection-toolkit/): Quantum physics is famously weird and fascinating. Its principles (like superposition and entanglement) defy everyday intuition...
- [AI Oasis: AI's Role in Saudi Vision 2030](https://postquantum.com/society-5/ai-oasis-ais-role-in-saudi-vision-2030/): The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is perhaps the first country in the world to explicitly entrench AI in its national development plans...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Photonic QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-quantum-computing/): Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Holonomic (Geometric Phase) QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/holonomic-geometric-phase/): Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum
- [A Deep Dive Into the ‘Rags to Riches’ Manual for Withdrawing Illicit-Origin Crypto](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/illicit-crypto-withdrawal/): Cryptosec summary of the dark web manual for cash-out of illicit-origin crypto assets - "Rags to Riches Guide"
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Trapped-Ion QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/trapped-ion-qubits/): Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Adiabatic Topological QC (ATQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-topological/): Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Topological Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/topological-quantum-computing/): Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Neuromorphic QC (NQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neuromorphic-quantum-computing/): Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing...
- [Cryptographic Stack in Modern Interbank Payment Systems](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-interbank-payment/): International interbank payments rely on multiple layers of classical cryptography to ensure security from end to end.
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Adiabatic QC (AQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-quantum/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Silicon-Based Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/silicon-based-qubits/): Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Spin Qubits in Other Semiconductors & Defects](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/spin-qubits-defects/): One well-known example for spin-qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom...
- [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Network Connectivity: Challenges and Impacts](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-network-impacts/): PQC brings new dependencies between cryptography and network connectivity. Unlike the relatively small and efficient crypto of the past...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/measurement-based-mbqc/): Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is...
- [New Coalition Launched to Tackle Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/mitre-coalition/): The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Neutral Atom (Rydberg)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neutral-atom-quantum/): Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Annealing (QA)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-annealing/): Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum...
- [Saudi Arabia Vision 2030: Cybersecurity at the Core of Transformation](https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-cybersecurity/): As Saudi Arabia steers towards its Vision 2030 goals, the emphasis on cybersecurity is not just relevant; it's fundamental.
- [AI Security 101](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-security-101/): On this page, I've compiled a selection of my intro articles on AI and ML security (in no particular order). This collection will continue to expand...
- [Why We Seriously Need a Chief AI Security Officer (CAISO)](https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-ai-security-officer-caiso/): As AI continues its meteoric rise, the need for a dedicated Chief AI Security Officer (CAISO) becomes increasingly evident
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Walk QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-walk/): Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker"...
- [How to Defend Neural Networks from Trojan Attacks](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/neural-trojan-attacks/): A Trojan attack in a neural network typically involves injecting malicious data into this training dataset. This 'poisoned' data is crafted in such a way...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Fibonacci Anyons](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/fibonacci-anyons/): Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics...
- [What Will Really Happen Once Q-Day Arrives – When Our Current Cryptography Is Broken?](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-what-will-happen/): How Q-Day is likely to unfold and why its arrival, while not a sudden Armageddon, will fundamentally change how we secure our world.
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: QA With Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-boost-bang-bang/): Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Dissipative QC (DQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dissipative-quantum/): Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Majorana Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/majorana-qubits/): Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Biological QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/biological-quantum/): Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Boson Sampling QC (Gaussian & Non-Gaussian)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/boson-sampling/): Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-cellular-automata/): Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Time Crystals' Potential QC Use](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/time-crystals-quantum/): Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state...
- [Will the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) beat Japan to Society 5.0?](https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-society5/): It is in Saudi Arabia that we see perhaps the most tangible manifestation of the physical world Society 5.0 imagines.
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: DNA-Based QIP](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dna-based-quantum/): DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: One-Clean-Qubit Model (DQC1)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/one-clean-qubit-dqc1/): The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Exotic and Emerging QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/exotic-emerging-quantum/): Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Photonic Continuous-Variable QC (CVQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-continuous-variable/): Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Hybrid QC Architectures](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/hybrid-quantum-computing/): Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) & Cluster States](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-ldpc-cluster-states/): Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints
- [Is 5G security being sacrificed at the altar of profit, politics and process?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-politics/): Issues with negotiating and licensing SEPs slow down 5G network development and ultimately have a negative impact on the ecosystem as a whole
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Gate-Based / Universal QC](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/gate-based-universal-quantum/): Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer...
- [Model Fragmentation and What it Means for Security](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/model-fragmentation-ai/): The increasing prevalence of fragmented machine learning models in today's technology landscape introduces a unique and complex set...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Annealing (QA) & Adiabatic QC (AQC)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-adiabatic/): Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Quantum Cellular Automata (QCA) in Living Cells](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/cellular-automata-cells/): Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state...
- [Outsmarting AI with Model Evasion](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-model-evasion/): In the ever-evolving landscape of AI and cybersecurity, the need to address model evasion tactics stands out as a critical challenge...
- [Canada’s Quiet Blockchain Revolution: A Tech Legacy Forged in the North](https://postquantum.com/leadership/canada-blockchain/): Canada might not be the first country that comes to mind when you think of blockchain and cryptocurrency.
- [Ethical and Privacy Implications of Quantum Sensing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ethics-privacy-quantum-sensing/): We have entered a new era where age-old expectations of privacy must be redefined for the quantum age...
- [New Hybrid Quantum Monte Carlo Algorithm](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/new-hybrid-quantum-monte-carlo/): Researchers developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical...
- [CISA’s "Quantum-Readiness" Fact Sheet: A Call to Prepare for Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/cisa-quantum-readiness/): The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) together with the NSA and NIST released a joint cybersecurity factsheet
- [Q-Day Predictions: Anticipating the Arrival of  CRQC](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-crqc-predictions/): While the exact arrival date of Q-Day remains uncertain, the necessity for immediate and strategic preparation does not.
- [AI and Canada: Pioneering Innovation, Searching for Homegrown Success](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-canada/): It’s easy to forget, amid the hype around Silicon Valley’s AI giants, that many of the foundational breakthroughs of modern AI were born in Canada.
- [Securing Machine Learning Workflows through Homomorphic Encryption](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/homomorphic-encryption-ml/): Unlike standard encryption techniques, which require data to be decrypted before any processing or analysis, Homomorphic Encryption allows
- [Understanding Data Poisoning: How It Compromises Machine Learning Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/data-poisoning-ml/): Understanding and addressing data poisoning is critical, not just from a technical standpoint but also due to its far-reaching real-world implications
- [Quantum Readiness for Mission-Critical Communications (MCC)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-mcc/): Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response
- [Semantic Adversarial Attacks: When Meaning Gets Twisted](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/semantic-adversarial-attacks/): Semantic adversarial attacks represent a specialized form of adversarial manipulation where the attacker focuses on twisting the semantic meaning
- [The AI Alignment Problem](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-alignment-problem/): The AI alignment problem sits at the core of all future predictions of AI’s safety. It describes the complex challenge of ensuring AI systems act...
- [Quantum Computing Modalities: Acoustic (Phononic) Quantum Systems](https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/acoustic-phononic-qc/): Quantum acoustic quantum computing refers to using quantized mechanical vibrations – phonons – to store and process quantum information.
- [Intel's Tunnel Falls: 24,000 Quantum Chips Per Wafer and the Manufacturing Argument Made Real](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/intel-tunnel-falls-silicon-manufacturing/): Intel releases Tunnel Falls, a 12-qubit silicon spin qubit chip fabricated on 300 mm wafers with 95% yield and 24,000 devices per wafer...
- [Fidelity in Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fidelity-quantum/): While the number of qubits in a quantum processor is an important metric, fidelity and error correction are equally, if not more, significant
- [Quantum Technology Use Cases in Supply Chain & Logistics](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-logistics/): Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally...
- [BIS Project Leap: Quantum‑Proofing Payments With Hybrid PQC Is Feasible - Now Comes the Hard Part](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/bis-project-leap-hybrid/): The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has released a report under Project Leap demonstrating - via a realistic central‑bank payments...
- [Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL) Risk](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/harvest-now-decrypt-later-hndl/): "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL) is a cybersecurity threat where adversaries collect encrypted data today to decrypt it in the future
- [Post-Quantum Cryptography PQC Challenges](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-pqc-challenges/): While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant PQC challenges that must be understood and addressed...
- [New World Record: Twin-Field QKD Achieved Over 1,000 km Fiber Link](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/new-world-record-qkd-fiber/): Chinese scientists have shattered the distance record for quantum key distribution (QKD) by successfully exchanging...
- [A (Very) Brief History of AI](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/history-ai/): A very brief history of artificial intelligence (AI). From Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace to OpenAI and ChatGPT
- [Understanding and Addressing Biases in Machine Learning](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ml-biases/): While ML offers extensive benefits, it also presents significant challenges, among them, one of the most prominent ones is biases in ML models...
- [Quantum Errors and Quantum Error Correction (QEC) Methods](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-error-correction/): Quantum error correction (QEC) is critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum...
- [Quantum Era Demands Changes to ALL Enterprise Systems](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-enterprise-changes/): Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. It is not just about changes to a few systems; it requires an enterprise-wide...
- [Bills of Materials for Quantum Readiness: SBOM, CBOM, and Beyond](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/bills-of-materials-quantum-readiness/): Quantum computing threat is forcing organizations to inventory their digital assets like never before. With powerful quantum attacks...
- [Report "The Quantum Threat to the US Financial System"](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantum-threat-us-financial-system/): Report published. Claiming a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could lead to losses of between $2 and $3.3 trillion in GDP.
- [Inside NIST’s PQC: Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nists-pqc-technical/): In 2022 NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption...
- [Quantum Networks 101: An Intro for Cyber Professionals](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-networks-101/): Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the internet
- [Adversarial Attacks: The Hidden Risk in AI Security](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/adversarial-attacks-ai/): Adversarial attacks specifically target the vulnerabilities in AI and ML systems. At a high level, these attacks involve inputting carefully crafted data...
- [Google Claims Breakthrough in Quantum Error Correction](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/google-breakthrough-error-correction/): Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step towards...
- [Quantum Radar: The Next Frontier of Stealth Detection and Beyond](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-radar/): Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing.
- [The Future of Digital Signatures in a Post-Quantum World](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-digital-signatures/): The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into lattices and hashes...
- [Canada’s National Quantum Strategy: A Good Start, But Not Enough](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/canadas-national-quantum-strategy/): Canadian officials unveiling the National Quantum Strategy in January 2023, a $360 million plan to boost quantum innovation...
- [Quantum Sensing - Introduction and Taxonomy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-intro-taxonomy/): Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental...
- [Scientists Achieve Entanglement Between Two Light Sources](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/two-light-sources-entanglement/): In a new study, researchers managed to create entanglement between two quantum emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly...
- [Canada Launches a National Quantum Strategy](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/canada-national-quantum-strategy/): In January 2023, the Government of Canada formally unveiled its National Quantum Strategy, a comprehensive plan backed by...
- [Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc/): Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity...
- [Gradient-Based Attacks: A Dive into Optimization Exploits](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gradient-based-attacks/): Gradient-based attacks are sophisticated exploits that leverage the mathematical underpinnings of ML models and primarily focus...
- [Quantum Computer Factors Record 48-Bit Number – How Far Are We from Cracking RSA-2048?](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-48-bit-rsa-2048/): Factoring a 2048-bit number is in a different universe of complexity, requiring thousands of high-quality qubits and billions of operations...
- [The Future of Consulting in the Age of AI](https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-consulting-age-ai/): The consulting firm of the future won’t be defined by a choice between human expertise and AI - it will thrive on the partnership between the two.
- [Neven’s Law: The Doubly Exponential Surge of Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/nevens-law/): In 2019, Google’s Quantum AI director Hartmut Neven noticed something remarkable: within a matter of months, the computing muscle...
- [Engaging and Managing Vendors for Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/vendors-quantum-readiness/): Vendors provide critical software, cloud platforms, fintech solutions, IoT devices, and more - and these often rely on vulnerable cryptographic...
- [Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/quantum-preparedness-act/): On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H.R.7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act...
- [2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/2022-quantum-threat-timeline-report/): 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing
- [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 4 - Security Operations (SOC)](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-operations-soc/): In many ways a traditional IT-focused Security Operations Center (SOC) could not fully address blockchain security monitoring needs
- [Introduction to AI-Enabled Disinformation](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/intro-ai-disinformation/): AI-enabled disinformation poses a significant threat to democratic processes, public trust, and social cohesion. While AI can be a potent tool...
- [The Unseen Dangers of GAN Poisoning in AI](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gan-poisoning-ai/): The emerging threat of GAN Poisoning casts a shadow over these advancements, presenting a unique set of cybersecurity challenges
- [IBM Osprey: A 433-Qubit Quantum Leap](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-osprey/): IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of 2022
- ["Magical" Emergent Behaviours in AI: A Security Perspective](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/emergent-behaviors-ai-security/): In the realm of AI, the phenomenon of emergent behaviours has been baffling researchers and practitioners. AI emergent capabilities refer to...
- [White House Memo Urges Federal Agencies to Prepare for Post-Quantum Cryptography](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/m-23-02-pqc/): The White House Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has issued a new memorandum that could reshape federal cybersecurity...
- [Entanglement Distribution Techniques in Quantum Networks](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-distribution/): Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical...
- [Can we afford to keep ignoring Open RAN security?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-security/): Open RAN should also reduce cybersecurity risks compared to conventional RAN, but there are a number of risks that are amplified in Open RAN
- [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 2 - Smart Contract Developers](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity-smart-contract/): In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for smart contracts, leaving the potential for security gaps.
- [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 3 - User Security](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-user-cybersecurity/): In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for blockchain security, leaving the potential for security gaps.
- [How Dynamic Data Masking Reinforces Machine Learning Security](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/dynamic-data-masking-ml/): Dynamic Data Masking offers a harmonious blend of security and functionality, making it increasingly relevant in today's complex data
- [How Label-Flipping Attacks Mislead AI Systems](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/label-flipping-ai/): Machine learning systems susceptibility to label-flipping attacks exposes a significant blind spot in cybersecurity measures...
- [The Toffoli Gate: The Unsung Workhorse in Quantum Codebreaking](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/toffoli-gate/): Toffoli gate gate doesn’t get much fanfare, yet it’s a crucial building block in quantum circuits for cryptanalysis...
- [Wave Function Collapse: When Quantum Possibilities Become Reality](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/wave-function-collapse/): Wave function collapse is the idea that a quantum system, described by a wave function embodying several possible states at once...
- [Proof of Reserve vs. Proof of Liability vs. Proof of Solvency](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/proof-reserve-liability-solvency/): Proof of Reserves and Proof of Liabilities can use Merkle trees to prove certain facts while keeping data anonymous...
- [How Blockchain Security Differs From Traditional Cybersecurity - 1 - Node Operators](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity/): In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for the blockchain, leaving the potential for security gaps.
- [The 12 Biggest Hacking Incidents in the History of Crypto](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/largest-crypto-hacks/): The most comprehensive ranked list of the 12 biggest crypto hacks, scams, exploits, vulnerabilities in history
- [Switzerland and United States Forge Quantum Cooperation](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-us-quantum/): In October 2022, Switzerland and the U.S. signed a Joint Statement on Cooperation in Quantum Information Science and Technology
- [Cat Qubits 101](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cat-qubits-101/): Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat...
- [ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study"](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/enisa-pqc-integration/): The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study"
- [Backdoor Attacks in Machine Learning Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/backdoor-attacks-ml/): In the realm of machine learning (ML), Backdoor Attacks pose a concealed yet profound security risk that goes beyond traditional cybersecurity
- [How the Big Binance Bridge Hack Will Change the way People View Web3](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/binance-hack/): $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part.
- [How a $1B Flash Loan Led to the $182M Beanstalk Farms Exploit](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/beanstalk-farms-exploit/): How a $1B flash loan Led to the $182M Beanstalk Farms decentralized credit-based stablecoin protocol exploit
- [The Top 4 Supply Chain Security Risks of Blockchain Smart Contracts](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/smart-contract-security-supply-chain/): Many of the supply chain vulnerabilities impacting smart contract security arise from a failure to apply DevSecOps best practices
- [How the Nomad Bridge Hack can Help Us Explore the Potential Downsides of Decentralization](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/nomad-bridge-hack/): One attacker and hundreds of copycats looted the Nomad bridge for over $190 million; few did the right thing.
- [Introduction to Zero-Knowledge Proofs](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/zero-knowledge-proofs-zkp/): A ZKP (Zero Knowledge Proof) allows a prover to demonstrate knowledge of some secret without revealing that secret.
- [How Crypto’s Biggest Hacker was Found but Never Identified](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/poly-network-hack/): The $611M Poly Network exploit is the largest crypto hack to date in terms of mark-to-market value and all the stolen funds were returned
- [The $160M Wintermute Hack: Inside Job or Profanity Bug?](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/wintermute-hack/): Getting to the bottom of the exploit that led to one of the biggest hacks in the history of decentralized finance.
- [NSA Unveils CNSA 2.0 Post-Quantum Algorithm Suite](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nsa-cnsa-2-0-pqc/): The U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) has officially announced the release of the Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite 2.0 (CNSA 2.0)
- [Introduction to Blockchain Layers 0, 1, and 2 Security](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-layers-security/): Securing the blockchain requires considering all layers of the blockchain ecosystem and their security risks and controls.
- [Mitigating Quantum Threats Beyond PQC](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/mitigating-quantum-threats-pqc/): A common misconception is that adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) alone will solve the problem. There are other mitigation approaches...
- [Introduction to Crypto-Agility](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/introduction-crypto-agility/): The field of cryptography is about to become much more dynamic. Which will require organizations to become crypto-agile. What is crypto-agility?
- [Silicon's First Attempts at Self-Repair: Phase-Flip Error Correction Demonstrated in Semiconductor Spin Qubits](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-first-error-correction/): Two independent teams demonstrate the first quantum error correction experiments in silicon...
- [Perturbation Attacks in Text Classification Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/perturbation-attacks/): Perturbation Attacks refer to a set of malicious alterations made to the input data of machine learning models, primarily aimed at misleading...
- [CHIPS and Science Act of 2022 Signed: A Quantum Leap for U.S. Tech](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/chips-and-science-act/): President Joe Biden signed the CHIPS and Science Act (H.R. 4346, Public Law 117-167) into law on August 9, 2022 - a historic $280 billion...
- [Trying to Solve the Mysterious $200M BitMart Hack](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/bitmart-hack/): $200M BitMart Hack - A missing pile of Safemoon and other cryptocurrencies, accusations of broken promises, and then nothing.
- [D-Wave Goes Public on the NYSE](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-nyse/): D-Wave achieved a significant corporate milestone by listing on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker “QBTS”.
- [How Multimodal Attacks Exploit Models Trained on Multiple Data Types](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/multimodal-attacks/): While the multi-faceted nature of multimodal models offers many advantages, it also creates several avenues for potential exploitation...
- [Why DevSecOps is Essential for the Blockchain Ecosystem](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-devsecops/): Managing the threat of insecure code on the blockchain requires developers to embrace the DevSecOps and better integrate security. 
- [What the $534M Coincheck Hack Taught Us All About Safe Storage of Digital Assets](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/coincheck-hack/): $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part.
- [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 6 - Wallet Attacks](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/crypto-wallet-attacks/): Wallets are a logical target for cyber-attacks, along with the emerging institutions that hold custody of them on users’ behalf.
- [What the Biggest Blockchain Game’s Hack Reveals about the Future of Crypto Adoption](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/ronin-bridge-hack/): Axie Infinity’s Ronin Bridge Hack for $551M worth of crypto assets could paradoxically lead to higher rates of blockchain adoption
- [Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Introduction](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-cryptography-pqc/): Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by...
- [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 5 - Consensus Attacks](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-consensus-attacks/): Where centralized systems operate on the basis of centralized permission, blockchain protocols proceed on the basis of decentralized consensus
- [Quantum Teleportation](https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-teleportation/): Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without...
- [The Threat of Query Attacks on Machine Learning Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/query-attacks-ml/): Query attacks are a type of cybersecurity attack specifically targeting machine learning models. In essence, attackers issue a series of queries...
- [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 4 - Network Attacks](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-cybersecurity-network-attacks/): Network attacks are a class of exploits that focus on the isolation and manipulation of individual nodes or groups of nodes.
- [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 3 - Smart Contracts](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/security-blockchain-3-smart-contracts/): The strengths of smart contracts are also the source of its weaknesses, and will always present opportunities for hackers to exploit.
- [Quantum Entanglement: The “Spooky” Glue Uniting Qubits and Beyond](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-entanglement/): From enabling quantum supercomputers to securing communications and teleporting quantum states, entanglement is the thread weaving...
- [Diving into the $320M Wormhole Bridge Hack](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/wormhole-bridge-hack/): The full story behind the exploit that led to the fraudulent minting of 120,000 wETH and threatened to crash Solana.
- [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 2 - A Holistic Overview](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-overview/): The utopian view of the blockchain as an unhackable alternative to the status quo is a pipedream. Many traditional cyberattacks...
- [Xanadu’s Photonic Quantum Computer Achieves Advantage](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/xanadu-photonic-advantage/): Toronto-based startup Xanadu shook the quantum world by announcing that its Borealis photonic quantum computer had achieved...
- [Securing Data Labeling Through Differential Privacy](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/differential-privacy-ai/): Differential Privacy presents itself as a mathematical and versatile tool to bridge the gap between data utility and data privacy...
- [Swiss Government Unveils CHF 80 Million Quantum Initiative](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/swiss-quantum-initiative-80/): The Swiss Federal Council approved a National Quantum Initiative in 2022, committing roughly CHF 80 million to quantum science and technology
- [Transmon Qubits 101](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/transmon-qubits-101/): Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor.
- [Security Threats to Blockchain Networks - 1 - Cyber Attacks Taxonomy](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-cyber-attacks-taxonomy/): Cyber-Attack Strategies in the Blockchain Era - A Framework for Categorizing the Emerging Threats to the Crypto Economy
- [White House - Quantum Related National Security Memorandum](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/white-house-quantum-security-memo/): On May 4, 2022, the White House issued National Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing...
- [Common Failures in a Quantum Readiness Program](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/common-failures-quantum-readiness/): Even well-run quantum readiness programs can stumble. Here are some common pitfalls in crypto-agility/PQC efforts and how to avoid them
- [Dos & Don'ts of Crypto Inventories for Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/manual-cryptographic-inventories/): Manual, interview-based, surrvey-based, spreadsheet-based cryptographic inventories are insufficient and potentially detrimental...
- [Planning the First Year of a Quantum Readiness Program](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/planning-quantum-readiness/): Embarking on a quantum readiness program can be daunting, so it’s helpful to break it into phases with concrete goals.
- [Record-Breaking Quantum Transmission Via Micius](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/micius-quantum-communications/): A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication via Micius satellite ...
- [National Initiatives in Quantum Technologies (as of April 2022)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/global-initiatives-quantum/): Countries are actively enhancing their capabilities through quantum-related strategic initiatives and regulatory frameworks
- [Introducing Society 5.0](https://postquantum.com/society-5/introducing-society-5-0/): The true power of Society 5.0 will lie in its degree of integration. As Shinzo Abe said, in Society 5.0 “we must cherish connectedness, above all else.”
- [We Need to Free Organizations of Bullshit](https://postquantum.com/leadership/organizational-bullshit/): Unfortunately, corporate mission and purpose statements are a magnet for bullshit. They invite the creation of grand, abstract declarations...
- [Neurodiversity: Talent or Token?](https://postquantum.com/leadership/neurodiversity/): A workplace with neurodiversity becomes more inclusive to a broader range of individuals, enhancing company reputation and brand image
- [Glossary of Quantum Computing Terms](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/glossary-quantum-cyber/): Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals
- [Cryptography in a Modern 5G Call: A Step-by-Step Breakdown](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-telecommunications-5g/): In a single end-to-end use case, literally hundreds of cryptography operations might be executed across dozens of systems...
- [Information-Triggered Collapse (ITC): An Information-Theoretic Approach to Wavefunction Reduction](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/information-triggered-collapse-itc-wavefunction-reduction/): We propose a new theoretical framework, Information-Triggered Collapse (ITC), which suggests that quantum wavefunction collapse occurs when...
- [Cybersecurity and Cryptographic Innovation in Canada](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cybersecurity-cryptography-canada/): Canada has long punched above its weight in advanced technologies - from pioneering work in AI to early breakthroughs in quantum computing...
- [Three Labs, One Week, One Threshold: Silicon Qubits Cross the Fault-Tolerance Line](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-qubits-fault-tolerance-threshold/): Three independent teams simultaneously demonstrate silicon quantum gates exceeding the 99% fault-tolerance threshold...
- [Swiss Startup Terra Quantum Lands $60 Million Funding](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/swiss-terra-quantum-raise/): Zurich-based startup Terra Quantum raised a hefty $60 million in Series A financing to build out its “quantum-as-a-service” platform.
- [Tracing Private Cryptocurrencies](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/tracing-private-cryptocurrencies/): Many believe total anonymity is possible using privacy enhanced cryptocurrencies. It might not always be the case.
- [Explainable AI Frameworks](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/explainable-ai-frameworks/): As the demand for explainable AI systems intensifies, a number of frameworks have emerged to bridge the gap between machine complexity...
- [The 5 Most Common Crypto Scams and How to Avoid Them](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/5-common-crypto-scams/): In this article we’ll discuss the 5 most common crypto scams and how you can avoid falling victim to them.
- [The Other Side of NFT - The Scams and the Threats](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/nft-scams-threats/): Just as with anything that has to do with cryptocurrency, you need a reasonable modicum of common sense and security to protect your NFT...
- [Meta-Attacks: Utilizing Machine Learning to Compromise Machine Learning Systems](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/meta-attacks-ai/): Meta-attacks are sophisticated form of cybersecurity threat, utilizing machine learning algorithms to target and compromise other ML systems
- [Neurodiversity and its Importance in the Development of Human Species](https://postquantum.com/leadership/neurodiversity-evolution/): Neurodiversity has been and continues to be an essential factor in the development and success of the human species
- [IBM Eagle: The First 100+ Qubit Quantum Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-eagle/): IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits .
- [How Saliency Attacks Quietly Trick Your AI Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/saliency-attacks-ai/): As the use of AI expands across various sectors, the need to address its vulnerabilities, such as saliency attacks, becomes increasingly urgent.
- [Ready for Quantum: Practical Steps for Cybersecurity Teams](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/practical-steps-quantum/): Practical preparation for Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) and Q-Day—when quantum computing will break cryptography
- [RSA-2048 Cracked in 177 Days With ~13K Processing Qubits? New Preprint Trades Qubits for Quantum Memory.](https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/rsa-2048-cracked-177-days/): A new preprint by Elie Gouzien and Nicolas Sangouard proposes an architectural trade: replace the “millions of qubits in one giant chip” ...
- [Lattice Surgery](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/lattice-surgery/): Lattice surgery is a technique that allows multiple encoded qubits (each on its own surface-code patch) to interact by merging and splitting...
- [Neurodiversity in Cybersecurity](https://postquantum.com/leadership/neurodiversity-cybersecurity/): Embracing neurodiversity in the cybersecurity industry offers significant benefits, including access to a diverse range of skills and perspectives
- [Dutch startup QuantWare launches commercially available superconducting QPUs](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantware-soprano-qpu/): Dutch quantum hardware startup QuantWare has announced the launch of commercially available superconducting quantum processing units...
- [Zurich Instruments Acquired to Boost Quantum Industry](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zurich-instruments-acquired/): A major corporate development in July 2021 saw German tech group Rohde & Schwarz acquire Zurich Instruments, a Swiss test & measurement
- [Organizational Bullshit: The Hidden Corporate Menace](https://postquantum.com/leadership/organizational-bullshit-hidden/): "Organizational bullshit" is not an expletive; it is an academically referenced term at the center of a body of legitimate research.
- [Zuchongzhi 2.0: China’s Superconducting Quantum Leap](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-2-0/): A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype
- [Batch Exploration Attacks on Streamed Data Models](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/batch-exploration-attacks/): Batch exploration attacks are a class of cyber attacks where adversaries systematically query or probe streamed machine learning models...
- [Next-Generation QKD Protocols: A Cybersecurity Perspective](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/next-generation-qkd/): Next-generation QKD protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities...
- [Zuchongzhi 1.0: China's New Superconducting Processor](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-1/): In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting...
- [Securing Society 5.0](https://postquantum.com/society-5/securing-society-5-introduction/): “Securing Society 5.0” addresses the largely unexamined cybersecurity threats of cyber-physical ubiquity in Society 5.0
- [ENISA Publishes "Post-Quantum Cryptography" Report](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/enisa-pqc-state/): The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation"
- [ETH Zurich and PSI Launch Joint Quantum Computing Hub](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eth-zurich-psi-quantum-hub/): May 2021 - ETH Zurich and the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) opened a new joint Quantum Computing Hub dedicated to developing
- [Breaking RSA-2048 With 20M Noisy Qubit](https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/breaking-rsa-2048-20m/): Paper authors claim that their construction's spacetime volume for factoring RSA-2048 integers is a hundredfold less than earlier estimates
- [Evaluating Tokenization in the Context of Quantum Readiness](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/tokenization-quantum-readiness/): One often overlooked yet highly promising approach to quantum readiness is tokenization which can reduce dependence on quantum-vulnerable...
- [Quantum Computing - Looming Threat to Telecom Security](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-telecom/): Learn practical steps to protect every device in your telecommunications organization from looming quantum computing threats.
- [Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) and Impact on Cyber](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-cyber/): Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its subset Quantum Annealing, are another models for quantum computation focused on optimization...
- [Routing Quantum Information: SWAP, iSWAP, and Moving Qubit States](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/routing-quantum-information/): Quantum computers face a unique challenge in moving quantum information between qubits. Unlike classical bits that can be shuttled freely...
- [Surface Code Quantum Error Correction](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/surface-code-qec/): Quantum error correction (QEC) is indispensable for building large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computers. Even today’s best qubits...
- [A Comparison of 5G Core Network Architectures](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/comparison-5g-core/): The article compares the different 5G Core Architecture of the major 5G Vendors - Huawei, Ericsson, Nokia, ZTE, Cisco, Affirmed, Mavenir
- [How Model Inversion Attacks Compromise AI Systems](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/model-inversion/): Model inversion attacks present a complex challenge to the security and ethical deployment of AI systems. While the attacks...
- [When AI Trusts False Data: Exploring Data Spoofing’s Impact on Security](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/data-spoofing-ai/): The pervasiveness of data spoofing poses a significant threat to the reliability and security of AI systems across various sectors...
- [How KuCoin Survived a Massive Hack of $285M Worth of Crypto Assets](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/kucoin-hack/): KuCoin in response to a $285M hack in 2020 set the standard for how to react to crypto hacks, even on the largest scale.
- [The Open RAN Lexicon You Need](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-lexicon/): Open RAN could offer a route to tighter operator control, improved accountability and stronger security of the 5G ecosystem.
- [Quantum Supremacy vs. Quantum Advantage](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-supremacy-advantage/): Two terms have emerged as the darlings of headlines and conference keynotes: quantum supremacy and quantum advantage.
- [CRQC Readiness Index Proposal](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-index/): This proposal outlines a composite, vendor‑neutral “CRQC Readiness” indicator. It intentionally avoids one‑number vanity metrics...
- [Understanding FIPS 140: A Cornerstone of Cryptographic Security](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/understanding-fips-140/): FIPS 140 (Federal Information Processing Standard 140) is a U.S. government computer security standard that specifies security requirements...
- [China’s Jiuzhang Achieves Photonic Quantum Advantage](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-jiuzhang-quantum/): A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum chip
- [Open RAN May Be the Future of 5G, but Can We Keep It Secure?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-future-5g-security/): Ironically, the greater freedom that defines open RAN could offer a route to tighter operator control and stronger security.
- [5G in Manufacturing - 5G and Time Sensitive Networking (TSN) for Industrial Automation](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-tsn-industrial-automation/): 5G specification includes several functionalities especially around the 5G New Radio (NR) that can be mapped to the TSN requirements
- [D-Wave’s 5,000+ Qubit Quantum Computer “Advantage”](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-5000-qubit/): Vancouver-area company D-Wave Systems - the world’s first commercial quantum computing firm - launched its Advantage quantum annealer...
- [Cybersecurity and Safety in the 5G-Enabled Smart-Everything World](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/cybersecurity-safety-5g-smart-everything/): In return for greater convenience brought by 5G we are increasingly losing the control over the related cyber risks.
- [Introduction to 5G Core Service-Based Architecture (SBA) Components](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-core-sba-components-architecture/): 5G architecture is an evolution of current 4G architectures but based on a Service-Based Architecture (SBA).
- [Targeted Disinformation](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/targeted-disinformation/): Targeted disinformation poses a significant threat to societal trust, democratic processes, and individual well-being. The use of AI in disinformation...
- [Smart Home / Smart Building Connectivity Options and Their Cybersecurity](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/smart-building-smart-home-connectivity-cybersecurity/): Smart home / smart building IoT wireless conectivity options and their cyberseucrity strengths and weaknesses
- [Introduction to 3GPP and 3GPP 5G Releases 15, 16 and 17](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-3gpp-releases-15-16-17/): 3GPP today finalized Release 16 - its second set of specifications for 5G New Radio (NR) technology. Let's review the 3GPP process.
- [Early History of Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/history-quantum-computing/): Brief history of quantum computing from quantum mechanics theory to practical implementations of quantum computers
- [Stop the Quantum Fear-Mongering - It Helps No One](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-fear-mongering/): Fear sells - or so some vendors seem to think. For decades, a steady drumbeat of ominous warnings has proclaimed...
- [Does the positive review of Huawei UDG source code quality mean that Huawei 5G is secure and reliable?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/huawei-ernw-5g-source-code/): Does ERNW positive review of Huawei’s UDG source code quality mean that Huawei 5G is secure and reliable? No, no it doesn't.
- [Will Telcos Lose the Edge Computing Battle as Well?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/telcos-edge-computing-battle/): Only proactive movement will do if telcos are to avoid losing the battle for edge computing. This will require a new way of doing business...
- [What COVID-19 Taught Us About the Need for 5G](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/covid-19-5g/): If 5G's implementation was controversial before, COVID-19 will probably make it a matter of far wider debate. And so it should.
- [Entanglement-Based QKD Protocols: E91 and BBM92](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/entanglement-based-qkd/): Entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications...
- [Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and the BB84 Protocol](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qkd-bb84/): Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics...
- [Twitter API for Secure Data Collection in Machine Learning Workflows](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/twitter-api-ml/): APIs offer a powerful means for collecting data securely and efficiently for your machine-learning workflows. However, proper usage requires...
- [Unlocking the Future – Why Virtualization Is the Key to 5G](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/virtualization-key-5g/): Virtualization is a profound step towards the liberation of 5G’s genuine capacity. Unfortunately, this also means more open to attack.
- [The Controlled-NOT (CNOT) Gate in Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cnot-gate-quantum/): The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations...
- [Will 5G and Society 5.0 Mark a New Era in Human Evolution?](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-society5-human-evolution/): The perpetual real-time connectivity requirements of Society 5.0 are almost incomprehensible. This will not be possible without 5G.
- [Switzerland Maps Out a National Quantum Strategy](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-national-quantum-strategy/): The Swiss Science Council released a landmark white paper on quantum technologies, outlining a national strategy to capitalize on Switzerland’s
- [Opportunity and Cybersecurity in the Age of 5G](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/opportunity-cybersecurity-age-5g/): Cybersecurity cannot be an afterthought - it needs to be built into 5G from the ground up or we risk too much exposure
- [Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) Benchmark](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/rcs-benchmark/): At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit.
- [Collaboration: The Unexpected Key to Success in Canada’s 5G](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/key-to-success-in-canadas-5g/): Whether they are prepared for it or not, whether they embrace it or not, 5G will disrupt local telecom companies in Canada.
- [The Dark Art of Model Stealing: What You Need to Know](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-model-stealing/): Model stealing represents a grave threat to industries across the board, from healthcare and finance to retail and gaming...
- [What You Need to Know about the $460M MtGox Hack of 2014](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/mtgox-hack/): The full story behind the first major crypto hack, the $460M MtGox Hack of 2014, and how much really was lost.
- [The Quantum Computing Threat](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-security/): Along with exciting new capabilities that will serve humanity in general, quantum computing also ushers in an era of expanded cyber risks.
- [Inside ITU’s New Quantum Key Standard (Y.3800)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/itu-y-3800-publication/): In late 2019, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) quietly reached a milestone in cybersecurity: it approved a new standard...
- [Google’s Sycamore Achieves Quantum Supremacy](https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-sycamore/): Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy”
- [IIoT and Trust and Convenience: A Potentially Deadly Combination](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/trust-iiot-deadly-combination/): IIoT can affect their surroundings. They also have the potential to be hacked. Those that control the cyber can then control the physical.
- [Challenges of Upgrading to Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-challenges/): The shift to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention...
- [5G Network: A Quantum Leap in Connectivity – and Cyber Threats](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-quantum-cyber-threats/): A coordinated move to build cybersecurity into 5G networks from the ground up is critical if we are to deliver on 5G promises
- [5G Innovation Zones in Canada for Launching AI and 5G in Tandem](https://postquantum.com/society-5/5g-innovation-zones-canada-ai/): Canada could get ahead in the global 5G innovation race not by being the first to 5G, but by being the first to roll out 5G in the right way
- [5G Health Risks - Health, Wealth and Tin Foil Hats](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-health-risks/): The rollout of 5G is one of the most anticipated events in humanity’s technological history. But what about the 5G health concerns?
- [5G and AI - Getting Smart About 5G and AI in Canada](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/getting-smart-5g-ai-canada/): If Canada wants to succeed with its AI-focused innovation agenda, it should also be at the forefront of 5G and AI joint development
- [Schrödinger’s Wave Equation](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/schrodingers-equation/): Schrödinger’s equation is essentially the master instruction set for quantum systems – the quantum-world analogue of Newton’s famous F=ma...
- [NFC Security 101 (Non-5G IoT Connectivity Options)](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/nfc-security-intro/): NFC security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.
- [RFID Security 101 (Non-5G IoT Connectivity Options)](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/rfid-security-intro/): RFID security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.
- [AI and 5G: AI at the 5G Core - A Double-Edged Sword](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-5g-core-security/): AI and 5G are poised to become one of the most impactful partnerships in history, but they could spell trouble
- [Wi-Fi Security 101 (Non-5G IoT Connectivity Options)](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/wifi-security-intro/): Wi-Fi security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.
- [Bluetooth Security 101 (Non-5G IoT Connectivity Options)](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/bluetooth-security-intro/): Bluetooth security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.
- [Zigbee Security 101 (Non-5G IoT Connectivity Options)](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/zigbee-security-overview/): Zigbee is wireless PAN (Personal Area Network) technology developed to support automation, machine-to-machine communication...
- [LoRaWAN Security 101 (Non-5G IoT Connectivity Options)](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/iot-lorawan-security/): LoRaWAN security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.
- [Mosca’s Theorem and Post‑Quantum Readiness: A Guide for CISOs](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/moscas-theorem/): Mosca’s Theorem is a risk framework formulated to help organizations gauge how urgent their post-quantum preparations should be.
- [Risks of AI - Meeting the Ghost in the Machine](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-risks/): At the speed AI is developing, it won’t be long before we see attacks on a mass scale. We need to prepare now for risks of AI
- [Beyond “Many Paths at Once”: The True Power of Quantum Computers](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-many-paths-at-once/): Quantum computers are often described with a mind-bending metaphor: they explore multiple paths simultaneously to find an answer...
- [Digital Double Helix: Why the Fates of 5G and AI are Intertwined](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/5g-ai-intertwined/): 5G and AI are poised to become one of the most impactful partnerships in human history, but they could spell trouble.
- [5G Critical Infrastructure - the Most Critical of All](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-critical-infrastructure/): As 5G is instated it will quickly become the infrastructure upon which all other infrastructures depend – the most critical of all
- [Telcos Should Take Risks to Jumpstart the 5G Ecosystem](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/telcos-5g-ecosystem/): To recoup major investment in 5G networks, telcos will have to approach the market in a completely different way
- [Q-Day (Y2Q) vs. Y2K](https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-y2k/): In the late 1990s, organizations worldwide poured time and money into exorcising the “millennium bug.” Y2K remediation was a global scramble.
- [What’s the Deal with Quantum Computing: Simple Introduction](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-introduction/): I'll try and break down the concepts of quantum computing, explore why it's better than classical computing for certain tasks, and discuss...
- [Geopolitics of 5G and 5G-Connected Massive & Critical IoT](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/geopolitics-of-5g-massive-critical-iot/): If 5G really starts driving the 4th Industrial Revolution, every government should be worried about being left behind.
- [5G Policy and Regulatory Checklist](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/policy-and-regulatory-checklist-5g/): Each stakeholder in the massive global transition to 5G should create their own checklist of threshold public policy and regulatory concerns
- [5G Network Slicing Technology: A Primer](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-network-slicing-primer/): Network slicing for 5G era is still shaping up, with many concerns and issues still remaining unsolved. Cybersecurity for one
- [5G Security & Privacy Challenges](https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-security-privacy-challenges/): 5G will enable new use cases with huge potential benefits. But it will also create new 5G security vulnerabilities
- [Cyber-Kinetic Security and Privacy Threats in Smart Cities](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-privacy-smart-cities-5g/): With so many critical services enmeshed with smart cities, the attack surface is enormous. Securing smart city and 5G systems is essentials
- [How 5G Will Transform Economy and Society](https://postquantum.com/society-5/5g-transform-global-economy-societies/): If 5G connectivity extends to even most of the industrialized world, it will be truly transformative to the global economy and societies
- [AI-Exacerbated Disinformation and Cyber Threats to Democracy](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-disinformation/): With disinformation likely to increase, supported by AI, it will become harder to discern truth from disinformation.
- [Feynman and the Early Promise of Quantum Computing](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/feynman-quantum-history/): In the early 1980s, the legendary physicist Richard Feynman imagined a new kind of computer - one that operates on the weird rules...
- [Importance of Privacy for Smart Cities and IoT](https://postquantum.com/society-5/privacy-smart-cities-iot/): We must recognize the complex issues surrounding the lifecycle of smart city data, especially when these data are aggregated or open to abuse
- [Quantum Parallelism in Quantum Computing: Demystifying the “All-at-Once” Myth](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-parallelism/): Quantum parallelism is often described in almost mystical terms – exponential computations happening in parallel in the multiverse! – but...
- [Gleaming Wisdom from the Strange $170M BitGrail Hack](https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/bitgrail-hack/): Around $170M worth of cryptocurrency was allegedly stolen from an obscure Italian crypto exchange called BitGrail in 2018...
- [Introduction to Quantum Random Number Generation (QRNG)](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-random-number-generation-qrng/): Unlike classical methods, QRNG leverages the inherent unpredictability of quantum mechanics. At the quantum level, particles such as photons...
- [Technology Trends for 2019 – More Amazing Than Flying Cars](https://postquantum.com/society-5/technology-trends-for-2019/): Seven technologies are poised for explosive growth in 2019. And what they can accomplish is not even the most significant disruption..
- [U.S. National Quantum Initiative Act](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/us-quantum-initiative-act/): On December 21, 2018, the United States solidified its commitment to quantum technology by enacting the National Quantum Initiative Act
- [Introducing Quantum AI (QAI)](https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-artificial-intelligence-qai/): Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence.
- [Why Do Quantum Computers Look So Weird?](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computer-weird/): The iconic look of superconducting quantum computers' "chandelier" causes lots of questions and discussions. For a simple introduction see...
- [Quantum Computing Use Cases](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-use-cases/): While quantum computing is still in its early stages, with practical and widespread use yet to be realized, the potential it holds is transformative...
- [Cyber-Kinetic Risk - Unintended Consequence of IoT in a 5G World](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-risks-iot-5g/): Traditional security protocols must be rethought to catch up to current and emergent technologies like 5G and related cyber-kinetic risks
- [EU Launches Quantum Technologies Flagship](https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/eu-quantum-technologies-flagship/): On October 29, 2018, the European Commission officially kicked off its ambitious Quantum Technologies Flagship initiative,
- [Sign Today, Forge Tomorrow (STFT) or Trust Now, Forge Later (TNFL) Risk](https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/sign-today-forge-sftf-tnfl/): Sign Today, Forge Tomorrow (STFT) or Trust Now, Forge Later (TNFL) is the digital‑signature equivalent of Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL)
- [AI: The Shifting Battlefield in the Cyber Arms Race](https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-cybersecurity-battlefield/): The most effective cybersecurity defense is a combination of AI to sort through data for human analysis, with that analysis feeding back
- [A Comprehensive Guide to Quantum Gates](https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-gates/): In quantum computing, the role of logic gates is played by quantum gates – unitary transformations on one or more qubits...
- [Growing Cyber-Kinetic Threats to Railway Systems](https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-railway-systems/): Cybersecuring railway systems from potential attackers must become paramount in the digitization that those systems currently undergo.
- [CH 8: Driving Change as Innovators](https://postquantum.com/leadership/ch8-driving-change-innovators/): To remain competitive, organizations will increasingly have to innovate. As the speed of innovation increases...
- [CH 1: Introduction – The Future of Leadership in the Age of AI](https://postquantum.com/leadership/ch1-introduction/): It’s almost impossible to turn around nowadays without finding another article predicting the impact that AI...

---

#
# Detailed Content


## Pages

> This series “Quantum Sovereignty & the New Cold War” treats sovereignty as more than a slogan. Shows how physics became geopolitical leverage

- Published: 2026-03-05
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty-geopolitics/
---

> PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q

- Published: 2025-12-10
- Modified: 2025-12-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-physics-paper-analysis/
---

> Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI...

- Published: 2025-10-02
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/database-quantum-computing-modalities/
---

> This living catalog maps the quantum software stack - from control & calibration, error correction/verification, compilers & toolchains,...

- Published: 2025-10-02
- Modified: 2025-10-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/database-quantum-software-companies/
---

> This living catalog maps the quantum‑security landscape end‑to‑end: post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) vendors...

- Published: 2025-10-02
- Modified: 2025-10-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/database-quantum-security-companies/
---

> This page collects the PostQuantum.com articles you need to kick‑off and run a quantum‑readiness program, end‑to‑end.

- Published: 2025-10-02
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/getting-started-quantum-security-pqc/
---

> I built the Quantum Technobabble Generator to have a little fun with the buzzword soup that often swirls around emerging tech

- Published: 2025-10-01
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-technobabble-generator/
---

- Published: 2025-09-10
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/contributors/
---

> PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q

- Published: 2025-09-05
- Modified: 2025-09-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-editorial-policy/
---

> PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each

- Published: 2025-08-24
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/postquantum-ai-explainer/
---

> Comparison of quantum computing hardware and processor companies- what they build, how they plan to reach fault tolerance...

- Published: 2025-08-19
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-roadmaps-2025/
---

> I build simple, opinionated tools to help security teams turn hype into action. Each tool is meant for education and scenario exploration

- Published: 2025-08-11
- Modified: 2025-10-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-tools/
---

> Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy

- Published: 2025-08-10
- Modified: 2025-08-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/contact/
---

> CRQC Readiness Benchmark and Q-Day Estimator helps you make your own prediction for the arrival of CRQC and Q-Day

- Published: 2025-08-10
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crqc-readiness-benchmark-q-day-estimator/
---

> PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each

- Published: 2025-08-10
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/pqc-migration-advisor/
---

> PQC Migration Advisor allows users to select the cryptographic methods they currently use and generate a detailed PQC migration report for each

- Published: 2025-08-10
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/pqc-readiness-self-assessment-scorecard/
---

> Here you’ll find a curated record of my talks, panel debates, and media appearances - each a snapshot of moments when quantum technology, AI...

- Published: 2025-08-10
- Modified: 2025-08-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/appearances/
---

> PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q

- Published: 2025-04-28
- Modified: 2025-09-18
- URL: https://postquantum.com/license/
---

> PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q

- Published: 2023-09-17
- Modified: 2025-04-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/privacy-policy/
---

> PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q

- Published: 2023-09-17
- Modified: 2025-04-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/cookie-policy/
---

> PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q

- Published: 2023-09-17
- Modified: 2025-04-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/terms-and-conditions/
---

> Marin Ivezic is a quantum and cybersecurity entrepreneur and the CEO of Applied Quantum - first quantum-dedicated end-to-end consultancy

- Published: 2023-05-21
- Modified: 2025-09-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/marin-ivezic/
---

> Future of Leadership in the Age of AI - Book by Marin Ivezic and Luka Ivezic

- Published: 2020-05-16
- Modified: 2025-09-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/iot-wireless-protocols/
---

> PostQuantum.com - Marin Ivezic - Articles on Quantum Computing, Quantum Tech, Quantum Resistance, Post-Quantum, PQC, CRQC, Q-Day, Y2Q

- Published: 2020-04-11
- Modified: 2025-08-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/marin-q-day-prediction/
---

> Timeline of key historic cyber-kinetic attacks, system malfunctions and key researcher demos targeting cyber-physical systems, IoT, ICS...

- Published: 2017-05-20
- Modified: 2025-09-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/timeline-cyber-kinetic/
---


---


## Posts

> Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) and Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) - from monolith to modular. Quantum Computing's PC Revolution

- Published: 2026-04-11
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/quantum-open-architecture-qoa-qsi/
- Categories: Quantum Systems Integration, Quantum Open Architecture QOA
Today's quantum computers are monoliths — a single vendor designs the chip, builds the control electronics, writes the software, and operates the cloud platform. The customer gets a black box. This is exactly where classical computing was in the 1960s, before open architectures, standardized interfaces, and modular hardware broke the mainframe model apart and created the most productive technology ecosystem in history. Quantum computing is now entering the same transition. Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) is the design philosophy driving the shift: building quantum systems from interchangeable, standards-based components assembled by integrators rather than consumed as proprietary stacks. Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) is the engineering discipline that makes QOA real — selecting, combining, testing, and operating components across the full quantum stack. This capstone article maps the transition across three layers: the structural shift from monoliths to modules, the technical stack that must be disaggregated and reassembled (control systems, operating systems, heterogeneous architectures), and the delivery models that determine how users actually access quantum computing. Together, QOA and QSI represent the industrialization of quantum computing — what takes it from physics experiment to engineering product.

---

> Nine investigations, one conclusion: China's structural advantages in quantum technology — from policy and talent to infrastructure and...

- Published: 2026-04-10
- Modified: 2026-04-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/sovereignty-geopolitics/china-quantum-ambition/underestimating-china-quantum-race/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition
- Tags: China
Nine investigations. One conclusion. China's structural advantages in quantum technology make it the most dangerous competitor the West has ever underestimated. Over the past several months, I examined every dimension of China's quantum program — the industrial policy that elevated quantum to the #1 priority in the 15th Five-Year Plan, the unverifiable billions flowing through layered investment channels, the purpose-built Hefei National Laboratory that has no Western parallel, the accelerating brain drain pulling talent from American universities into Chinese institutions, quantum computing hardware across three platforms, the world's only 12,000-kilometer carrier-grade quantum network, field-deployed military sensing systems, and a supply chain being hardened against Western sanctions. The pattern that delivered Chinese dominance in EVs, 5G, drones, and robotics is now pointed at quantum computing — with the added accelerant of a coordination advantage that mobilizes government, military, state enterprises, and academia as a single system. China's weaknesses are real. But the West is dismantling the very advantages that should compensate for them. A Nobel laureate says the US leads by "nanoseconds." The evidence in this series suggests even that may be optimistic.

---

> China went from zero domestic dilution refrigerator manufacturers in 2021 to ten by 2026. US export controls designed to choke...

- Published: 2026-04-09
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-supply-chain-self-sufficiency/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition
- Tags: China
In June 2023, a Zhejiang University graduate named Chen Jie sat for an interview with a Chinese tech columnist. Chen had founded a cryogenics company called CSSC Pengli in Nanjing thirteen years earlier — a subsidiary of China State Shipbuilding Corporation that made cooling systems for MRI machines. Nobody in the West had heard of him. His company had just been placed on the US Entity List for supporting China's quantum technology capabilities. When the interviewer asked how he felt about the designation, Chen called it the "Honor Roll", and explained that orders were flooding in because domestic customers could no longer buy cryogenic equipment from the United States. Three years later, Chen's company is one of at least ten Chinese manufacturers producing dilution refrigerators — the gold-chandelier cooling systems that bring superconducting quantum processors to within a whisper of absolute zero. In 2021, China had zero. The transformation from total import dependency to a sprawling domestic cryogenics industry, achieved in roughly the time it takes to complete a PhD, represents one of the most striking supply chain build-outs in quantum technology history. And the architect of this build-out, more than any Chinese five-year plan or state investment fund, was the United States Bureau of Industry and Security. This is the story of that paradox, and what it means for the quantum race, for quantum sovereignty, and for the Western assumption that export controls can maintain technological advantage in a domain where the supply chain is shallow enough to replicate domestically.

---

> Q-CTRL's Q-NEXUS heterogeneous architecture cuts RSA-2048 physical qubit requirements to 190k–381k...

- Published: 2026-04-09
- Modified: 2026-04-09
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/architecture-heterogeneous-crqc-q-ctrl/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Research
9 Apr 2026 - Researchers at Q-CTRL, a quantum infrastructure software company headquartered in Los Angeles and Sydney, have published a paper introducing Q-NEXUS, a heterogeneous quantum computing architecture that claims to reduce the physical qubit requirements for factoring 2048-bit RSA integers to as few as 190,000 physical qubits — a roughly 4.7× reduction from the current monolithic baseline. The paper, titled "Heterogeneous architectures enable a 138× reduction in physical qubit requirements for fault-tolerant quantum computing under detailed accounting", was just posted to arXiv. The research team, led by Pranav S. Mundada, Aleksei Khindanov, Yulun Wang, and including Q-CTRL founder Michael J. Biercuk, proposes separating quantum computation into specialized functional modules — processing units, quantum memory, state factories, and a quantum bus — rather than building a single monolithic qubit array. The core result for RSA-2048 factorization: using an experimentally demonstrated grid-coupling topology and Gidney's 2025 algorithm, the architecture requires 381,000 physical qubits and 9.2 days. Adding an application-specific accelerator for the dominant Adder subroutine reduces factorization time to 4.9 days at a cost of 439,000 qubits. If hypothetical long-range qubit coupling is assumed, enabling qLDPC codes in memory, the requirement drops to 190,000 qubits in under 10 days. The paper also introduces Q-CHESS, a compiler framework that produces machine-level instructions for the heterogeneous architecture, explicitly modeling timing mismatches, scheduling, and error accumulation across modules with different clock rates. Notably, Q-CTRL's approach does not modify the underlying cryptanalytic algorithm. The gains come entirely from how the computation is organized and executed across specialized hardware, drawing explicit parallels to the von Neumann stored-program architecture that underpins all modern classical computing.

---

> China has built the world's most state-directed quantum sensing program — from deep-sea diamond magnetometers to space-based atomic...

- Published: 2026-04-08
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-sensing-ecosystem/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition, Quantum Sensing
- Tags: China
In April 2025, a team from the University of Science and Technology of China published what might be the most consequential quantum sensing result of the decade — and almost nobody in the Western security community noticed. They had taken a nitrogen-vacancy center diamond magnetometer, packaged it into a ruggedized housing, and lowered it to the floor of the South China Sea aboard the manned submersible Shenhai Yongshi. It worked. Vector magnetic field measurements, in actual deep-ocean conditions, using a quantum sensor. The same month, a separate Chinese team published peer-reviewed results of a drone-mounted atomic magnetometer tested in offshore trials near Weihai, Shandong. It achieved picotesla-level sensitivity — matching NATO's MAD-XR magnetic anomaly detection system at lower cost and complexity. The application was unmistakable: hunting submarines. And a few weeks earlier, aboard the Chinese Space Station, researchers had demonstrated the world's first cold atom gyroscope to operate in orbit — a technology that, if miniaturized and ruggedized, could provide GPS-free navigation for submarines, missiles, and autonomous vehicles. Three results, three different quantum sensing modalities, three different teams, all within a few weeks of each other. None of them, individually, represents a deployed military capability. But taken together, they reveal something that deserves far more attention than it has received: China has built the world's most comprehensive, state-directed quantum sensing program, and it is accelerating. This article is my attempt to map that program — the companies, the labs, the military applications, the genuine achievements, and the claims that don't hold up under scrutiny. Because as I've argued throughout my analysis of the quantum race, understanding what China is actually doing matters far more than the breathless headlines suggest — but it also matters far more than the skeptics want to admit.

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> Anthropic's Claude Mythos Preview autonomously finds and exploits zero-day vulnerabilities in every major OS and browser...

- Published: 2026-04-08
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/anthropic-mythos-preview-ai-offensive-security/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
8 Apr 2026 – Anthropic yesterday announced Claude Mythos Preview, a frontier AI model that can autonomously discover and exploit zero-day vulnerabilities in every major operating system and every major web browser. Alongside the model, Anthropic launched Project Glasswing, a defensive coalition including Amazon Web Services, Apple, Broadcom, Cisco, CrowdStrike, Google, JPMorganChase, the Linux Foundation, Microsoft, NVIDIA, and Palo Alto Networks — formed to use these capabilities to secure critical software before similar models become widely available. According to Anthropic's technical assessment, Mythos Preview has already identified thousands of high- and critical-severity zero-day vulnerabilities, with over 99% still unpatched at the time of disclosure. The model discovered bugs that had survived decades of human review and millions of automated security tests — including a 27-year-old vulnerability in OpenBSD's TCP stack, a 16-year-old flaw in FFmpeg's H.264 codec, and remotely exploitable bugs in FreeBSD's NFS server that grant full root access to unauthenticated attackers. The model does not merely find bugs. It autonomously develops working exploits — including multi-vulnerability chains that bypass modern defense-in-depth measures. In one documented case, Mythos Preview chained four vulnerabilities into a JIT heap spray that escaped both browser renderer and OS sandboxes. In another, it autonomously constructed a 20-gadget Return Oriented Programming chain split across multiple network packets to achieve remote code execution on FreeBSD. It wrote multiple local privilege escalation exploits for the Linux kernel that chain together KASLR bypasses, use-after-free vulnerabilities, and heap sprays — the kind of work that previously required weeks from elite security researchers. The capability jump is scary. Anthropic reports that its previous model, Claude Opus 4.6, had a near-0% success rate at autonomous exploit development. Mythos Preview, tested against the same Firefox JavaScript engine benchmark, developed working exploits 181 times out of several hundred attempts where Opus 4.6 succeeded only twice. On Anthropic's internal OSS-Fuzz benchmark, Opus 4.6 achieved a single tier-3 crash across roughly a thousand repositories. Mythos Preview achieved full control-flow hijack — the highest tier — on ten separate, fully patched targets. Anthropic also disclosed that Mythos Preview found vulnerabilities in TLS, AES-GCM, and SSH implementations within major cryptography libraries, including bugs that could allow certificate forgery or decryption of encrypted communications. One of these — a critical certificate authentication bypass in the Botan library — was disclosed publicly the same day. The model additionally demonstrated the ability to reverse-engineer closed-source, stripped binaries and identify exploitable vulnerabilities in them — including firmware vulnerabilities that enable smartphone rooting and remote denial-of-service attacks against servers. Anthropic states that these capabilities were not explicitly trained for, but emerged as a downstream consequence of general improvements in code understanding, reasoning, and autonomy. The company does not plan to make Mythos Preview generally available, instead providing access through Project Glasswing to a limited group of partners and over 40 additional organizations that build or maintain critical software infrastructure. Anthropic is committing up to $100 million in usage credits and $4 million in direct donations to open-source security organizations.

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> AI models that autonomously find and exploit zero-days are terrifying for IT. For critical infrastructure and OT running decades-old firmware...

- Published: 2026-04-08
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/ai-offensive-capabilities-critical-infrastructure-ot/
- Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security, AI Security
On April 7, 2026, Anthropic disclosed Claude Mythos Preview, an AI model that autonomously discovers and exploits zero-day vulnerabilities in every major operating system and web browser. As I detailed in my analysis of the announcement, these capabilities represent a structural break in the economics of offensive security. Work that used to require elite teams, months of effort, and seven-figure budgets now happens in hours for a few thousand dollars. The technical blog post is extraordinary and worth reading in full. But something struck me about both Anthropic's disclosure and the industry commentary that followed: virtually all of it focuses on IT targets — browsers, operating systems, cryptographic libraries, web applications. Anthropic's defensive coalition, Project Glasswing, brings together the usual suspects of the technology industry: AWS, Apple, Google, Microsoft, CrowdStrike, Palo Alto Networks. Nobody is talking about power plants. Nobody is talking about water treatment facilities. Nobody is talking about the programmable logic controllers that manage chemical processes, the safety instrumented systems that prevent refinery explosions, or the SCADA networks that coordinate electrical grid operations across entire countries. This is a significant omission. Because when I map Mythos Preview's demonstrated capabilities against the reality of operational technology environments, what I see is not just a worse version of the IT security problem. It is a qualitatively different and far more dangerous threat.

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> China operates the world's only 12,000+ km carrier-grade quantum communication network with satellite QKD...

- Published: 2026-04-07
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-networking-qkd/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition
- Tags: China
On September 29, 2017, a video call connected two men separated by 7,600 kilometres. On one end, in Beijing, Bai Chunli, president of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. On the other, in Vienna, Anton Zeilinger, the physicist who would later win the 2022 Nobel Prize. The call consumed roughly 560 kilobits of encryption key per minute, refreshing AES-128 session keys every second. What made it historic was not the call itself but the source of those keys: photons beamed from a satellite named after an ancient Chinese philosopher, bounced between ground stations on two continents, carrying quantum states that no eavesdropper could intercept without detection. That call was a demonstration. What China has built since is something else entirely — an operational, carrier-grade quantum communication network spanning over 12,000 kilometres of fiber, 145 backbone nodes across 80 cities in 17 provinces, connected to two quantum satellites, and serving hundreds of government agencies, banks, and state-owned enterprises. No other nation has anything comparable. Whether it represents a visionary investment in information-theoretic security or an expensive hedge against a threat that post-quantum cryptography already addresses is a question I will examine carefully. But the engineering achievement itself is beyond dispute. This article is the comprehensive reference I have been wanting to write for years — tracing every major deployment, satellite mission, protocol breakthrough, and record from the earliest metropolitan testbeds through early 2026. It is part of my ongoing series on China's quantum technology initiatives. The Infrastructure The Beijing-Shanghai Backbone: Where It All Started The story begins in July 2013, when construction started on the Beijing-Shanghai Quantum Communication Backbone Network — the Jinghu trunk line. Led by Pan Jianwei at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), it took 42 months to build: a 2,032 km fiber-optic QKD link connecting Beijing, Jinan, Hefei, and Shanghai through 32 trusted relay nodes and 135 QKD links.

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> Cloudflare joins Google in targeting 2029 for full post-quantum security. Two internet giants now agree...

- Published: 2026-04-07
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cloudflare-pqc-2029/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
7 Apr 2026 – Cloudflare, the infrastructure company that handles a significant share of global internet traffic, today announced it is accelerating its post-quantum cryptography roadmap and targeting 2029 for full post-quantum security — including, critically, post-quantum authentication. The announcement, authored by Cloudflare Research's Bas Westerbaan, explicitly cites last week's Google Quantum AI ECC-256 resource estimates and Oratomic's 10,000-qubit Shor's algorithm paper as the catalysts for the accelerated timeline. Cloudflare states it has moved to match Google's own 2029 PQC migration deadline, announced on March 25. Cloudflare reports that over 65% of human-initiated traffic to its network already uses post-quantum encryption, protecting against Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL) attacks. The company has offered post-quantum key exchange on all websites and APIs since 2022. But the new roadmap addresses the harder problem: post-quantum authentication — digital signatures, certificates, and the identity infrastructure that verifies who you're talking to. The blog post also references IBM Quantum Safe CTO Michael Osborne's assessment that quantum "moonshot attacks" on high-value targets cannot be ruled out as early as 2029, and quotes quantum computer scientist Scott Aaronson's warning that researchers working on Shor's algorithm resource estimates may have already stopped publishing their findings. Cloudflare commits to providing all post-quantum upgrades to customers across every plan at no additional cost, consistent with its 2014 decision to offer free universal SSL certificates.

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> From Zuchongzhi 1.0 to below-threshold error correction: a rigorous assessment of where China's quantum computing hardware actually stands

- Published: 2026-04-06
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-computing-hardware/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition, Quantum Computing
- Tags: China
The published record suggests China trails the US by about a year. The actual gap may be narrower — or it may already be closed. In December 2025, a team at the University of Science and Technology of China quietly posted a paper to Physical Review Letters demonstrating something only one other laboratory on Earth had achieved: quantum error correction operating below the surface code threshold. The paper landed as a PRL Editors' Suggestion and cover article. It described how their 107-qubit Zuchongzhi 3.2 processor could suppress logical errors in a way that actually improves as the error-correcting code gets larger — the defining prerequisite for building a fault-tolerant quantum computer. I covered it here. Google had demonstrated the same milestone twelve months earlier with its Willow processor. Twelve months is a meaningful gap. But here is the question that should keep Western strategists awake: does that twelve-month gap represent the actual distance between China and the United States — or merely the distance between their publication dates? This is not a rhetorical question. Chinese quantum scientists operate under structural constraints that have no parallel in the Western research ecosystem. The MERICS China Tech Observatory documented that passports of "strategic scientists" are held by their institutions and released only under strict conditions — Pan Jianwei, despite having earned his PhD in Vienna and collaborated extensively with European institutions, reportedly can no longer travel overseas. Quantum encryption technology was added to China's export restriction list in 2020. The U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission's November 2025 report states bluntly: "The Commission assumes China is aggressively pursuing cryptographically relevant quantum computing and deliberately obscuring where its most sophisticated programs are located." In this environment, Chinese researchers do not have the same incentives, or permissions, to rush results onto arXiv the moment an experiment succeeds. Several analysts have suggested that Chinese publications may lag actual capability by 18 to 24 months, reflecting internal review, classification assessment, and strategic timing. I cannot verify that specific timeframe, but the structural conditions that would produce such a delay are well-documented and undeniable. So when I say the published record shows China roughly 12 months behind the United States on the most critical error correction benchmarks, I am being precise about what the evidence supports. I am also being honest about what it does not tell us.

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> The GRI/evolutionQ Quantum Threat Timeline Report 2025 shows the most optimistic 10-year CRQC predictions in its 7-year history

- Published: 2026-04-05
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantum-threat-timeline-report-2025/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
5 Apr 2026 - The Global Risk Institute (GRI) and evolutionQ Inc. have published the seventh edition of their annual Quantum Threat Timeline Report, the longest-running expert survey dedicated to estimating when a quantum computer will be capable of breaking widely deployed public-key cryptography. The report, dated 9 March 2026 and authored by Dr. Michele Mosca (co-founder and CEO of evolutionQ, professor at the University of Waterloo) and Dr. Marco Piani (senior research analyst at evolutionQ), surveyed 26 international experts across academia and industry. Its central finding: the averaged expert estimate of the probability of a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) emerging within the next 10 years now ranges between 28% and 49%, depending on how responses are interpreted — the highest 10-year estimate in the report's seven-year history. The GRI Quantum Threat Timeline series has become a standard reference for CISOs, government agencies, and risk committees seeking to calibrate their PQC migration timelines. Published annually since 2019, it is one of only a handful of systematic, longitudinal efforts to quantify the proximity of Q-Day - the point at which a quantum computer can break RSA-2048 or equivalent cryptographic schemes within a practical timeframe. This year's edition arrives against a backdrop of accelerating technical progress. Recent months have delivered a cluster of results - from Gidney's sub-million-qubit RSA factoring estimates to Google Quantum AI's ECC resource reductions to demonstrations of error correction beyond break-even on multiple hardware platforms - that have materially shifted the field's assumptions about how much hardware a CRQC actually requires. The report captures expert sentiment shaped by these developments, and the numbers reflect it.

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> QuiX Quantum demonstrates below-threshold photon distillation on a 20-mode photonic processor — the first error mitigation milestone...

- Published: 2026-04-05
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quix-first-below-threshold-photonic/
- Categories: Research
5 Apr 2026 - QuiX Quantum, a Netherlands-based photonic quantum computing company, announced it has demonstrated below-threshold error mitigation on a photonic quantum computer for the first time, in collaboration with NASA's Quantum Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (QuAIL), the University of Twente, and Freie Universität Berlin. The result, described in a pre-print on arXiv currently undergoing peer review, demonstrates a technique called photon distillation on QuiX's Bia cloud quantum computing platform. Using a programmable 20-mode silicon-nitride photonic processor, the team showed that quantum interference among multiple imperfect photons can be used to produce cleaner, more indistinguishable photons — reducing photon indistinguishability error by a factor of 2.2. Critically, the team reports that the protocol achieves net-gain error mitigation even after accounting for noise introduced by the distillation gate itself, delivering a 1.2× net reduction in total error. This meets the two conditions considered essential for meaningful error mitigation in any quantum computing platform: the protocol removes more errors than it introduces, and it does not impede the operation of the rest of the computer. QuiX claims this is the first time either condition has been demonstrated on photonic hardware, and the first European demonstration of production-ready error reduction on any quantum computing platform. Numerical modeling presented in the paper suggests that integrating photon distillation with quantum error correction could reduce the number of photon sources required per logical qubit by up to a factor of four — a significant potential reduction in system complexity, since photon sources constitute the vast majority of components in a photonic quantum computer. The project was partially funded by the Netherlands Ministry of Defense's Purple NECtar Quantum Challenges initiative, through a project called QSHOR — a name that suggests the defense establishment is interested in photonic paths toward running Shor's algorithm.

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> China built its quantum program on a handful of Western-trained scientists who returned home under lavish recruitment schemes...

- Published: 2026-04-05
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-talent/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition, Quantum Policies
- Tags: China
In 1996, a 26-year-old physics student from the University of Science and Technology of China arrived in Vienna to begin doctoral work under Anton Zeilinger, one of the world's leading quantum experimentalists. Five years later, he went home. That decision — one young physicist choosing to return to a country that had no quantum information program to speak of — set in motion what has become the most consequential state-directed talent operation in the history of quantum technology. Pan Jianwei is now executive vice president of USTC, a CAS academician, and the architect of virtually every major Chinese quantum achievement: the Micius satellite, the 2,032-km Beijing-Shanghai QKD backbone, the Jiuzhang photonic quantum computers, and the Zuchongzhi superconducting processors. His story is the origin story of Chinese quantum science. But the system he helped build around himself — a tightly integrated machine of returnee scientists, elite universities, government recruitment programs, and state-backed companies — is the real story. And it is the story that will determine whether China can close the remaining gaps with the United States in the capabilities that matter most for the path to a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC). This is the latest installment in my China quantum series. Previous articles have covered China's overall quantum strategy, the Hefei National Laboratory, quantum networking and QKD, quantum sensing, and the 15th Five-Year Plan's quantum provisions. Here I examine the human capital dimension — the people, programs, universities, and dynamics that power the machine.

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> China's Hefei National Laboratory is the world's largest quantum research facility — a 49-hectare campus that has produced breakthroughs...

- Published: 2026-04-04
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-hefei-quantum/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition, Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: China
On April 26, 2016, Xi Jinping walked into USTC's Advanced Technology Research Institute in Hefei and listened to a physicist named Pan Jianwei describe the future of quantum information science. What Xi said next — "Very promising, very important… the country will definitely support this" — set in motion the largest single investment in quantum technology any nation has ever made. Within a year, construction permits were approved. Within five, China had its first new-generation national laboratory. Within a decade, that laboratory had produced quantum computational advantage demonstrations on two separate hardware platforms, launched the world's first quantum satellite, built a 12,000-km quantum communication backbone, and incubated more than 70 quantum companies along a road the locals simply call "Quantum Avenue." The Hefei National Laboratory (合肥国家实验室) is not just a research facility. It is the institutional embodiment of China's belief that quantum technology is too important to leave to market forces — and the most vivid illustration of what state-directed science can accomplish when political will, concentrated funding, and a deep bench of talent converge in a single location. In my ongoing analysis of China's quantum program, I have covered the individual pieces — the satellites, the processors, the networks, the companies. This article puts them together. This is the story of the place where most of it happens.

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> A new Nature Physics paper borrows from particle physics to solve a stubborn bottleneck in fault-tolerant quantum computing

- Published: 2026-04-03
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/gauge-theory-meets-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Research
April 2, 2026 - Dr. Dominic Williamson of the University of Sydney and Theodore Yoder of IBM have published a new method for performing fault-tolerant logical measurements on quantum error-correcting codes that dramatically reduces the physical qubit overhead required. The paper, titled "Low-overhead fault-tolerant quantum computation by gauging logical operators", appears in Nature Physics (DOI: 10.1038/s41567-026-03220-8). The technique treats logical quantum operators as symmetries and "gauges" them - borrowing a mathematical framework from lattice gauge theory, the same formalism that underpins the Standard Model of particle physics. By introducing synthetic gauge-like degrees of freedom, the method enables measurement of global logical information without collapsing the local quantum state. The key quantitative result: previous approaches to measuring logical operators in efficient quantum codes required auxiliary qubit overhead scaling as O(W × d), where W is the weight of the operator being measured and d is the code distance. The new gauging procedure reduces this to O(W × polylog W) - overhead that is essentially linear in the operator weight, up to a small polylogarithmic correction. The work was conducted during Dr. Williamson's sabbatical at IBM's Quantum Information Theory and Error Correction group in California. Elements of the design have already been integrated into IBM's long-term roadmap for building large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computers, including the Starling architecture targeted for 2029.

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> Everyone cites McKinsey's $15.3 billion figure for Chinese quantum investment. Nobody can verify it...

- Published: 2026-04-03
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-quantum-investment-unknowable/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition, Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: China
In October 2023, I was on a call with a European defense ministry official who wanted to discuss quantum threats. Within the first five minutes, he cited it. "China has invested $15.3 billion in quantum technology - nearly double the EU and four times the United States." He said it with the confidence of someone quoting a law of physics. I asked where the number came from. He didn't know. It was just… the number. Everyone knew it. That $15.3 billion figure has become the anchoring fact of the global quantum race narrative. It appears in reports from CSIS, ITIF, ECIPE, the Belfer Center, and the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission. It underpins congressional testimony, NATO briefings, and boardroom presentations. It has been repeated so many times that it has acquired the weight of established fact. There is just one problem: nobody can verify it, the organization that produced it has never explained how it was derived, and one of China's most senior quantum physicists says it's inflated by three to four times. The real number - the actual amount China has spent on quantum technology across all levels of government, state-owned enterprises, private sector, and military programs - is unknowable. Not uncertain. Not imprecise. Unknowable. And the reasons it's unknowable tell us more about the quantum race than any dollar figure ever could. The Anatomy of a Canonical Number The $15.3 billion figure originates from McKinsey & Company's Quantum Technology Monitor, first published in its 2022 edition and repeated in subsequent years. McKinsey describes it as "announced government investments" in quantum technology — and to their credit, they caveat it. The reports note "limited data availability on start-up funding in China" and acknowledge that "actual investment is likely higher."

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> China's 15th Five-Year Plan, approved March 12, 2026, lists quantum technology first among seven "future industries"...

- Published: 2026-04-02
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/china-quantum-ambition/china-15th-five-year-plan-quantum/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition, Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Policies
- Tags: China
When China's National People's Congress approved the 15th Five-Year Plan on March 12, 2026, it completed a journey that had been building for over a decade. Quantum technology, once buried deep in academic research budgets, emerged at the top of Beijing's list of seven "future industries" designated as new engines of national economic growth. Above biomanufacturing. Above hydrogen energy. Above 6G. Above brain-computer interfaces. Above embodied intelligence. That ordering is not accidental. In the grammar of Chinese industrial policy, position on a list signals priority for resource allocation. And the resources backing this signal are substantial: $17.5 billion across three regional quantum-focused venture funds, a deliberate pivot from university grants to commercial procurement and manufacturing subsidies, and explicit calls for scalable quantum computers and an integrated space-earth quantum communication network. For security leaders and technology strategists outside China, this is no longer a matter of tracking a competitor's research ambitions. It is a matter of understanding a state that has decided quantum technology is as strategically important as semiconductors and artificial intelligence - and is funding it accordingly. From Recommendations to Law: The Timeline The path to the 15th Five-Year Plan's quantum provisions followed the choreography familiar to China-watchers. Xi Jinping personally headed the drafting group established in January 2025. The recommendations were adopted at the Fourth Plenum of the 20th CPC Central Committee, held October 20–23, 2025. At that session, Minister of Science and Technology Yin Hejun identified quantum technology among the industries where China would pursue breakthroughs, describing quantum alongside biomanufacturing and fusion energy as sectors whose combined growth over the next decade would be equivalent to creating an entirely new high-tech sector. The CCP Politburo reviewed the draft outline on February 27, 2026, and the NPC formally adopted the plan on March 12. The final document commits to maintaining R&D expenditure growth above 7% annually and increasing high-value invention patents to over 22 per 10,000 people by 2030 - up from 12 per 10,000 in the 14th FYP target.

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> Two new papers claim 10,000 qubits could run Shor's algorithm. Social media is on fire - "CRQC is here". Here's the reality check...

- Published: 2026-04-01
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-scorecard-how-close/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, CRQC Capability Framework, Quantum Computing
Yesterday, two papers landed that set social media on fire. Google Quantum AI published a landmark resource estimate showing that fewer than 500,000 superconducting qubits could break Bitcoin's elliptic curve cryptography in under nine minutes. Hours later, a team from Oratomic, Caltech, and UC Berkeley — including some of the most credible names in fault-tolerant quantum computing — dropped a paper claiming that Shor's algorithm can be executed at cryptographically relevant scales with as few as 10,000 neutral atom qubits. Predictably, the reaction was a mix of breathless hype and genuine concern. "Q-Day is around the corner!" proclaimed dozens of posts. Crypto Twitter panicked. Vendors rushed to sell quantum-safe solutions. I understand the alarm. These are serious papers from serious researchers. The numbers are genuinely lower than anyone expected. And they come on top of a cascade of resource estimation breakthroughs over the past year that have collectively reduced the estimated cost of breaking RSA-2048 by over 2,000× — from 20 million physical qubits to potentially under 10,000. But the gap between "a paper says 10,000 qubits could work" and "a machine actually breaks your encryption" remains vast. Not because the papers are wrong, but because actually building a quantum computer that meets the paper's assumptions is an engineering challenge of extraordinary complexity. This article provides the reality check. Using my CRQC Quantum Capability Framework and its three executive-level metrics — LQC, LOB, and QOT — I'll map every major resource estimation paper published in the past year against the latest hardware achievements from each quantum computing modality. I'll show you the gap in concrete, quantified terms that a CISO can take to their board.

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> QuantumShield360 AI announces world's first complete post-quantum cryptography migration across all enterprise systems. [Satire]

- Published: 2026-04-01
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantumshield360-ai-pqc-migration-complete/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
Scottsdale, AZ — April 1, 2026 — QuantumShield360 AI, a next-generation quantum-resilient cybersecurity platform leveraging AI-powered lattice synergies, today announced it has completed a full, end-to-end migration to post-quantum cryptographic standards across its entire technology stack — becoming the first company in history to achieve total quantum resilience. "While Fortune 500 companies are still conducting cryptographic inventories and debating algorithm selection, we shipped," said Jayden Krypto-Nakamoto, Founder and CEO of QuantumShield360 AI. "Most enterprises are estimating five-to-ten-year migration timelines. We did it in a weekend. That's the QuantumShield360 AI difference." The migration, which the company describes as "a comprehensive, lattice-based transformation spanning all mission-critical infrastructure," encompassed the entirety of QuantumShield360 AI's technology stack, including:

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> China dominates EVs, 5G, robotics, drones, energy, and AI. Data-driven analysis of the Leapfrog Doctrine — and why quantum computing is next.

- Published: 2026-04-01
- Modified: 2026-04-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/sovereignty-geopolitics/china-quantum-ambition/china-leapfrog-doctrine/
- Categories: China's Quantum Ambition, Quantum Policies
- Tags: China
Almost fifteen years ago, I stood on the mezzanine floor of a manufacturing facility in Dongguan, staring into the dark. Literally. Below me, a sprawling production line hummed with the rhythmic, pneumatic hiss of assembly arms and the whine of servos. There were no overhead lights. There were no workers on the line. There was only the glow of status LEDs blinking in the gloom, painting the polished concrete floor in shifting hues of green and amber. I was working on some of the early "dark factory" implementations - fully automated systems designed to operate 24/7 without human intervention - at a time when Western manufacturing only started debating the ethics of replacing a single worker with a Baxter robot. (This was the genesis of my book, The Future of Leadership in the Age of AI, written a decade ago with Luka Ivezic). This was not the China of cheap plastic toys and sweatshops that dominated Western headline. This was a China that was already silently, methodically, and ruthlessly climbing the value chain. Even then, over a decade ago, the technological disparity in daily life was jarring. I remember returning to London or San Francisco and feeling like I had traveled back in time. In Shanghai, I paid for my morning coffee with a WeChat, split a dinner bill instantly with friends, and booked a doctor’s appointment on an app. In the West, I was still signing paper receipts, writing cheques, and fumbling with chip-and-pin machines that worked half the time. The apartments I visited in Shenzhen featured smart integration - facial recognition entry, automated climate control, integrated delivery lockers, automated sun shades and mood lighting that maintained user’s preference throughout the day, robotic vacuums that automatically activated when all the residents are out of the apartment, and

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> Silicon quantum computing has quietly assembled every building block for fault-tolerant operation — from threshold-crossing gates to logical qubits...

- Published: 2026-03-31
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/silicon-dark-horse-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
The quantum computing modality race has had a clear narrative for most of the past decade. Superconducting qubits were the frontrunners — Google's quantum supremacy demonstration in 2019, IBM's steadily growing processor roadmap, the first below-threshold surface code results in 2024. Trapped ions were the precision contenders — the highest individual gate fidelities of any platform, with companies like Quantinuum and IonQ pushing toward commercial systems. Photonic quantum computing offered the exotic long shot — room-temperature operation and optical interconnects, championed by PsiQuantum and Xanadu. Then, starting in late 2023 and accelerating through 2025, neutral atoms exploded onto the scene. The Harvard-MIT-QuEra collaboration demonstrated a 280-qubit logical quantum processor, followed by a universal fault-tolerant architecture with 448 atoms, below-threshold error correction, and continuous operation of over 3,000 qubits. Microsoft and Atom Computing announced plans for a 50-logical-qubit error-corrected machine. Neutral atoms went from dark horse to serious contender in under two years. But while the world was watching neutral atoms surge, something quieter — and potentially more consequential — was happening in silicon. Over the past four years, silicon spin qubits have systematically demonstrated every fundamental capability required for fault-tolerant quantum computing. Not with the flash of a single landmark paper, but through a steady, methodical progression across multiple research groups, multiple continents, and multiple approaches within the platform itself. Gates above threshold. Error correction. Algorithms. Multi-register scaling. Stabilizer-based error detection. And now, as of March 2026, universal logical operations and distillable magic states. Silicon has not demonstrated the largest quantum processors. It has not set error correction distance records. It has not generated the most headlines. But it has assembled all the pieces — and it is the only platform that can leverage the most powerful manufacturing infrastructure on earth to put them together.

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> Google Quantum AI cuts the quantum resources needed to break Bitcoin's cryptography by 10x in spacetime volume, estimating just 500,000...

- Published: 2026-03-31
- Modified: 2026-04-09
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/google-quantum-bitcoin-ecdlp/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Research
31 Mar 2026 - Google Quantum AI has published a 57-page whitepaper demonstrating that the quantum resources needed to break the elliptic curve cryptography protecting Bitcoin, Ethereum, and virtually every major cryptocurrency are roughly an order of magnitude smaller than previously estimated. The paper, titled "Securing Elliptic Curve Cryptocurrencies against Quantum Vulnerabilities: Resource Estimates and Mitigations" and co-authored with researchers from the Ethereum Foundation and Stanford University, presents two optimized quantum circuits for solving the 256-bit Elliptic Curve Discrete Logarithm Problem (ECDLP-256) on the secp256k1 curve — the cryptographic foundation of Bitcoin and Ethereum transaction signatures. The circuits achieve a roughly 10x improvement in spacetime volume over the best prior single-instance estimates, translating to fewer than 500,000 physical qubits and a runtime measured in minutes on a superconducting architecture. In a move unprecedented in quantum cryptanalysis, the team withheld the circuits themselves and instead published a cryptographic zero-knowledge proof — built with SP1 zkVM and Groth16 SNARK — allowing anyone to verify the claims without accessing the attack details. The paper was accompanied by a responsible disclosure blog post in which Google stated it had engaged with the U.S. government prior to publication and urged other quantum computing research teams to adopt similar disclosure practices.

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> Hours after Google's ECDLP paper, Oratomic shows Shor's algorithm can run on just 10,000 neutral atom qubits...

- Published: 2026-03-31
- Modified: 2026-04-09
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/10000-qubits-shors/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Research
31 Mar 2026 - On the same day that Google Quantum AI published its landmark ECDLP-256 resource estimates showing fewer than 500,000 superconducting qubits could break cryptocurrency cryptography in minutes, a team from Oratomic, Caltech, and UC Berkeley quietly dropped a paper making an even more startling claim about qubit count: Shor's algorithm can be executed at cryptographically relevant scales with as few as 10,000 reconfigurable neutral atom qubits. The paper, titled "Shor's algorithm is possible with as few as 10,000 reconfigurable atomic qubits," is authored by Madelyn Cain, Qian Xu, Robbie King, Lewis Picard, Harry Levine, Manuel Endres, John Preskill, Hsin-Yuan Huang, and Dolev Bluvstein. The team spans Oratomic — a new quantum computing startup based in Pasadena — Caltech, and UC Berkeley. For those tracking the field, the names Bluvstein (who led Harvard's landmark neutral atom fault-tolerance demonstrations), Preskill (one of the founders of quantum error correction theory), and Endres (Caltech atomic physics) signal exceptional technical credibility. The two papers are not independent. Oratomic's ECC-256 resource estimates explicitly use Google's newly published circuit compilations — the same circuits verified by Google's zero-knowledge proof. Google showed the circuits are efficient. Oratomic shows those circuits can run on dramatically fewer physical qubits — but on a fundamentally different type of machine, with fundamentally different implications for the threat timeline.

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> Silicon quantum computing isn't one approach — it's three: atomically precise donor qubits, gate-defined quantum dots, and foundry-compatible...

- Published: 2026-03-27
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/silicon-three-approaches-compared/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
When people say "silicon quantum computing," they often speak as if it is one thing. It is not. It is at least three distinct approaches, built on the same material but employing different physics, different fabrication methods, and different strategies for reaching fault-tolerant scale. Understanding these differences — and the tradeoffs each makes — is essential for anyone tracking which version of silicon quantum computing is most likely to matter, and when. All three approaches share silicon's core advantages: compatibility with semiconductor industry infrastructure, small qubit footprint (~50 nm), and long coherence times enabled by isotopic purification of ²⁸Si. But they diverge sharply on how qubits are defined, controlled, and manufactured. Approach 1: Atomically Precise Donor Qubits The idea: Embed individual phosphorus atoms into a silicon crystal and use their nuclear spins (or the spin of the donor's extra electron) as qubits. Multiple donors placed within a few nanometres of each other share a single electron, creating a tightly coupled register with native multi-qubit connectivity through the hyperfine interaction.

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> The 2026 US Intelligence Community Annual Threat Assessment elevates quantum computing alongside AI as a defining national security challenge

- Published: 2026-03-27
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/ata-u-s-intelligence-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
27 Mar 2026 - Every March, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence publishes a document that most Americans will never read but that quietly shapes trillions of dollars in defense spending, intelligence priorities, and technology policy. The Annual Threat Assessment (ATA) is the Intelligence Community's official, unclassified evaluation of the threats facing the United States - a consensus view from eighteen intelligence agencies, distilled into roughly thirty pages of carefully calibrated language. This year's edition, released on March 18 and presented to the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence by Director of National Intelligence, does something notable for anyone tracking quantum security: it treats quantum computing not as a footnote to cyber threats or a future curiosity, but as one of two defining technological challenges to U.S. national security - right alongside AI. For those of us who have spent years arguing that quantum risk deserves boardroom and cabinet-level attention, this isn't just bureaucratic reshuffling. It's the U.S. intelligence establishment putting its institutional weight behind a position that the quantum security community has long advocated. What the Annual Threat Assessment Is (And Why It Matters) For readers unfamiliar with the ATA: The ATA is not a think-tank report or a vendor whitepaper. It is the product of a structured, multi-agency intelligence process - the National Intelligence Council coordinating input from the CIA, NSA, DIA, FBI, and every other component of the U.S. Intelligence Community. Its language is reviewed, debated, and negotiated among analysts with access to classified intelligence that will never appear in these pages. It's debated for months. Every word and punctuation in this carries weight.

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> Google sets a 2029 deadline for its post-quantum cryptography migration — a year ahead of NIST's deprecation target. What it means...

- Published: 2026-03-25
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/google-pqc-migration-2029/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
25 Mar 2026 - The company building the quantum computer is telling you the clock is running out. That should get your attention. On March 25, 2026, Google published a brief but consequential blog post authored by Heather Adkins, VP of Security Engineering, and Sophie Schmieg, Senior Staff Cryptography Engineer. Buried beneath a deliberately understated title - "Quantum frontiers may be closer than they appear" - was a commitment that should ripple across every CISO's desk and every board risk committee on the planet: Google is targeting 2029 to complete its migration to post-quantum cryptography. Not 2035, the outer bound of NIST's disallowance timeline. Not 2030, when NIST plans to deprecate legacy algorithms. 2029 - a full year ahead of the official deprecation date, and six years ahead of the final deadline. This is not a company hedging its bets or issuing vague guidance about "starting to plan." This is Google, which operates the world's most widely used browser, one of the two dominant mobile operating systems, and a major cloud infrastructure platform, announcing a hard target for completing one of the most complex cryptographic transitions in computing history. And it's doing so while simultaneously running one of the world's most advanced quantum computing research programs - a detail that deserves far more scrutiny than it has received. The Dual Position No One Else Occupies To understand why Google's announcement matters more than a typical corporate security roadmap update, you have to appreciate the company's unique, and somewhat uncomfortable, dual role in the quantum landscape. Google Quantum AI has been targeting the construction of a useful, error-corrected quantum computer by 2029 since CEO Sundar Pichai announced that goal at Google I/O in 2021. The Willow chip, unveiled in late 2024, demonstrated below-threshold quantum error correction for the first time - a milestone that moved the company measurably closer to that goal. And in May 2025, Google researchers published a preprint showing that 2048-bit RSA could theoretically be broken by a quantum computer with just 1 million noisy qubits running for one week - a 20-fold reduction from the team's previous estimate of 20 million qubits.
Now the Rennes team has turned its attention to the other pillar of modern public-key cryptography — and the results should concern anyone responsible for systems that depend on elliptic curves. Their new paper, published in the proceedings of EUROCRYPT 2026, presents a quantum algorithm that solves the Elliptic Curve Discrete Logarithm Problem (ECDLP) on a 256-bit prime curve using just 1,098 logical qubits - roughly half the 2,124 qubits required by the previous best estimate from Häner et al. (2020). For P-384, the count drops from 3,151 to 1,494. For P-521, from 4,258 to 1,895. The catch — and it is a significant one — is that this qubit reduction comes at the cost of a dramatically higher gate count. But as we will examine, that tradeoff may matter less than the headline numbers suggest, because in the race toward a cryptanalytically relevant quantum computer (CRQC), qubits have consistently been the harder constraint to satisfy.

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> Chinese researchers demonstrate the first universal logical gate operations in a silicon quantum processor...

- Published: 2026-03-24
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-logical-operations-first/
- Categories: Research
24 Mar 2026 - In 1998, Bruce Kane published a single-page proposal in Nature that launched an entire subfield of quantum computing. The idea was elegant: use the nuclear spins of individual phosphorus atoms embedded in a silicon crystal as qubits. Silicon offered long coherence times. Phosphorus offered an addressable spin. And the surrounding semiconductor infrastructure — the lithography, the fabrication processes, the supply chains that already produced billions of transistors — offered something no other quantum platform could: a plausible path to mass manufacturing. Twenty-eight years later, Kane's vision has reached a milestone that silicon's competitors achieved first but that silicon may ultimately exploit most effectively. A team at the Shenzhen International Quantum Academy (SZIQA) and Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech), led by Dapeng Yu and Yu He, has demonstrated universal logical gate operations in a silicon quantum processor for the first time. Published in Nature Nanotechnology, the work uses five phosphorus nuclear spins embedded in an isotopically purified silicon lattice to encode two logical qubits, execute a complete universal gate set including the critical non-Clifford T gate, and run a variational quantum eigensolver algorithm on encoded logical qubits — computing the ground-state energy of a water molecule. It is the first time any silicon platform has operated at the logical level. And it comes from China. What the Experiment Actually Achieved The researchers fabricated their device using scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) lithography — the same technique pioneered by Michelle Simmons' group at UNSW, now commercialized through Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC). STM lithography allows individual phosphorus atoms to be placed into a silicon crystal with atomic precision. The working processor consists of a single donor cluster: five phosphorus atoms sharing one electron, embedded between layers of isotopically purified ²⁸Si (with ²⁹Si concentration below 130 parts per million, minimizing the nuclear spin noise that remains the primary decoherence source in silicon qubits). The five nuclear spins of those phosphorus atoms serve as qubits. The single shared electron mediates multi-qubit interactions through hyperfine coupling, enabling a native gate set that includes high-connectivity CCCCZ-type gates — effectively multi-controlled-Z operations that would require significant decomposition on other architectures. Single-qubit control is achieved through nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) pulses, while the multi-qubit gates exploit electron spin resonance (ESR) transitions conditioned on specific nuclear spin configurations. This is the same physical mechanism — electron-mediated coupling between donor nuclear spins — that underpins the donor qubit approach across all groups working in this space.

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> An Oxford physicist claims quantum computers face a hard ceiling at 1,000 qubits — but the latest ECC attack estimates...

- Published: 2026-03-21
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/the-1000-qubit-ceiling/
- Categories: Research
21 Mar 2026 - A curious thing happened in cybersecurity Slack channels and LinkedIn threads over the last few weeks: security professionals who had been dragging their feet on post-quantum cryptography migration suddenly had a new reason to wait. A paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences by Tim Palmer, an emeritus professor of physics at Oxford, proposed that quantum computers might face a hard, physics-imposed ceiling of roughly 1,000 useful qubits — far too few, Palmer argued, to ever break RSA-2048. The headlines were irresistible. "Quantum Computers Could Have a Fundamental Limit After All," announced Phys.org. "RSA May Not Be Threatened After All," echoed The Quantum Insider. Within days, the paper was being cited in enterprise risk meetings as evidence that the quantum threat had been overstated - that perhaps the billions being spent on cryptographic migration were premature. There is just one problem: the paper doesn't prove what many people think it proves. It proposes an unverified theoretical framework, builds on a gravitational collapse model whose simplest version has already been experimentally ruled out, and even if its central claim were correct, the "ceiling" it describes may not be high enough to protect the cryptographic algorithms organizations rely on today.

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> Regular readers will know that organizational bullshit is a topic I've been fascinated by - and personally scarred by - for years.

- Published: 2026-03-17
- Modified: 2026-03-17
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/corporate-bullshit/
- Categories: Leadership
Regular readers will know that organizational bullshit is a topic I've been fascinated by - and personally scarred by - for years. I wrote about it at length back in 2022, drawing on the foundational academic work by Frankfurt, Spicer, McCarthy, and others, and making the case that we need to systematically free organizations from the stuff. I even built a Quantum Technobabble Generator for PostQuantum.com, essentially a bullshit generator for our own industry, because I figured that if people could see how easy it is to produce impressive-sounding quantum nonsense algorithmically, they might think twice before falling for it in a vendor pitch. So when a Cornell researcher independently builds his own corporate bullshit generator, uses it to develop a scientifically validated psychometric scale, and publishes findings that confirm everything I suspected during 30+ years in Fortune 500 and Big 4 consulting - you can imagine my reaction. It was somewhere between vindication and a Vietnam flashback. The paper is Shane Littrell's "The Corporate Bullshit Receptivity Scale," freshly published in Personality and Individual Differences and already making waves everywhere from The Register to Inc.com. And the findings are, to put it mildly, devastating.

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> French researchers halve the logical qubit count needed to break ECC with a quantum computer — from 2,124 to just 1,098 for P-256

- Published: 2026-03-15
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/algorithm-quantum-ecc/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
15 Mar 2026 - When Clémence Chevignard, Pierre-Alain Fouque, and André Schrottenloher submitted their latest paper to EUROCRYPT 2026, they already had a track record that the cryptographic community was watching closely. In 2024, the same team at INRIA Rennes had published a method that slashed the qubit requirements for quantum factoring of RSA integers - work that Craig Gidney at Google Quantum AI subsequently used as a foundation to bring the estimated physical qubit cost of breaking RSA-2048 from 20 million down to under one million. That result sent tremors through every risk committee tracking quantum timelines. Now the Rennes team has turned its attention to the other pillar of modern public-key cryptography — and the results should concern anyone responsible for systems that depend on elliptic curves. Their new paper, published in the proceedings of EUROCRYPT 2026, presents a quantum algorithm that solves the Elliptic Curve Discrete Logarithm Problem (ECDLP) on a 256-bit prime curve using just 1,098 logical qubits - roughly half the 2,124 qubits required by the previous best estimate from Häner et al. (2020). For P-384, the count drops from 3,151 to 1,494. For P-521, from 4,258 to 1,895. The catch — and it is a significant one — is that this qubit reduction comes at the cost of a dramatically higher gate count. But as we will examine, that tradeoff may matter less than the headline numbers suggest, because in the race toward a cryptanalytically relevant quantum computer (CRQC), qubits have consistently been the harder constraint to satisfy.

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> Quantinuum squeezes 94 error-detected and 48 error-corrected logical qubits from just 98 physical qubits using iceberg codes on Helios

- Published: 2026-03-10
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantinuum-94-logical-qubits/
- Categories: Research
10 Mar 2026 - Quantinuum researchers have demonstrated quantum computations using up to 94 error-detected logical qubits and 48 error-corrected logical qubits on the company's 98-qubit Helios trapped-ion quantum processor. The work, published as a pre-print on arXiv, reports "beyond break-even" performance across multiple benchmarks — meaning the encoded logical qubits outperformed their unencoded physical counterparts. The team used a family of error-detection and error-correction schemes known as iceberg codes, which achieve a near 1:1 ratio of physical to logical qubits by requiring only two additional physical qubits for error-detection overhead. By concatenating — or nesting — iceberg codes, the researchers created distance-4 error-correcting codes that can both detect and correct certain classes of errors. Key results include logical gate error rates of approximately 1 × 10⁻⁴ (one error per ten thousand operations), significantly lower than Helios's bare physical two-qubit gate error rate of approximately 8 × 10⁻⁴. The team also demonstrated a 94-qubit GHZ (Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger) entangled state with approximately 95% fidelity, and used 64 error-detected logical qubits to perform a quantum simulation of a three-dimensional XY model of quantum magnetism — a system whose forward time evolution the authors suggest may challenge classical simulation methods. In a blog post, the researchers stated: "This is just the beginning: we are officially entering the era of large-scale logical computing."

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> A recent discussion with QuantWare’s CEO, Matt Rijlaarsdam, shed light on “quantum open architecture” approach that could transform the industry

- Published: 2026-03-08
- Modified: 2026-03-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/discussion-quantware-ceo-matt/
- Categories: Quantum Systems Integration, Quantum Open Architecture QOA
- Tags: Netherlands
Quantum computing is entering a new phase where scaling up isn’t just about qubit counts - it’s about how those qubits are built and integrated. A recent discussion with QuantWare’s CEO, Matt Rijlaarsdam, shed light on “quantum open architecture” (QOA) approach that could transform the industry. By focusing on modular design and specialization (instead of monolithic, end-to-end systems), companies hope to break through scaling bottlenecks and democratize access to quantum machines. QuantWare - a Dutch startup supplying superconducting quantum processors - is at the forefront of this movement, but the implications go far beyond any single company. The vision: quantum computing could evolve more like the classical PC industry, where interchangeable components and shared standards turbocharged progress, rather than like the isolated mainframes of old. From Lab Monoliths to Quantum Open Architecture In the early days of quantum computing, academic labs and a few tech giants built vertically integrated machines - essentially doing everything in-house from qubits to cryogenics. This all-in-one approach produced pioneering systems, but it doesn’t scale well. Just as in classical computing history (where early mainframes gave way to an ecosystem of specialized chipmakers, component suppliers, and software firms), quantum tech is now seeing a shift toward specialization. This trend is epitomized by the Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) model, which enables different organizations to contribute modular pieces of a quantum computer. Instead of buying a closed “black box” system or trying to build everything from scratch, a university or company can assemble a quantum computer from plug-and-play components - sourcing a processor from one vendor, control electronics from another, a cryogenic fridge from yet another, and so on.

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> China's Origin Pilot isn't just another quantum SDK - it's a top-down systems integration layer that challenges the West's approach to QOA

- Published: 2026-03-07
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum-os-origin-pilot/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: China
China's Origin Pilot isn't just another quantum SDK — it's a top-down systems integration layer that challenges the West's bottom-up approach to quantum open architecture.

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> China's Origin Quantum Computing Technology Co. has made its quantum operating system, Origin Pilot, available for free public download

- Published: 2026-03-07
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-si-news/china-first-downloadable-quantum-os/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
China's Origin Quantum Computing Technology Co. has made its quantum operating system, Origin Pilot, available for free public download - a move that multiple sources describe as the first time a quantum computer OS has been offered for local deployment anywhere in the world. The release, announced February 26 through the Anhui Quantum Computing Engineering Research Center and widely covered by Chinese and international media, makes available the software that powers China's third-generation superconducting quantum computers, the Origin Wukong series. What It Is Origin Pilot, now in its fourth major version, is described as an integrated quantum-classical-AI computing operating system. First introduced in 2021, it has undergone multiple iteration cycles and currently manages core functions including resource scheduling, hardware-software coordination, parallel quantum task execution, and automatic qubit calibration.

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> 7 Mar 2026 - the White House released "President Trump's Cyber Strategy for America," the administration's long-delayed national cyber strategy

- Published: 2026-03-07
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/white-house-national-cyber-strategy/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
7 Mar 2026 - On Friday afternoon - the traditional Washington burial ground for news you'd rather not have scrutinized - the White House released "President Trump's Cyber Strategy for America," the administration's long-delayed national cybersecurity strategy document. Originally expected in January, the strategy outlines six policy pillars that will ostensibly guide the nation's cybersecurity posture going forward. The document makes bold claims. It positions American cyber capabilities as unmatched, promises to "disrupt and disorient" adversaries, and dedicates significant rhetorical real estate to artificial intelligence, offensive cyber operations, and deregulation. For those of us focused on the quantum threat landscape, however, the strategy raises more questions than it answers - and the answers it does provide are not encouraging. Four Pages to Secure the Nation The first thing that strikes you about this strategy is its brevity. At seven pages - two of which are cover and back pages, one being the presidential letter - the actual substance makes up four sparse pages. For context, the Biden administration's 2023 National Cybersecurity Strategy ran 39 pages. Trump's own first-term strategy in 2018 was 40 pages. Both included detailed objectives and measurable outcomes under each pillar.

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> Origin Quantum Computing Technology Co. is China's first and most prominent quantum computing startup, building a vertically integrated...

- Published: 2026-03-07
- Modified: 2026-03-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/origin-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Canada
Origin Quantum Computing Technology Co. (本源量子计算科技) is China's first and most prominent quantum computing startup, building a vertically integrated superconducting quantum computing platform that spans from chip fabrication through operating system to cloud delivery. Headquartered in Hefei, Anhui Province - the heart of China's "Quantum Avenue" - the company occupies a unique position in the global landscape: no other quantum computing company in the world builds the entire stack in-house, from quantum processor chips and dilution refrigerators to control electronics, an operating system, a programming framework, and a cloud platform. Founded in September 2017 as a spinoff from the CAS Key Laboratory of Quantum Information at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Origin Quantum was born from the recognition that China's quantum computing ambitions could not be realized through academic research alone. Its co-founders - Professor Guo Guoping, who established China's first semiconductor quantum chip research group in 2005, and Academician Guo Guangcan, widely regarded as the founder of quantum optics and quantum information science in China - set out to build not just a quantum computer but an entire domestic quantum computing industry.

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> If someone tells you RSA-2048 or even RSA-4096 has been secretly cracked, they are either lying to you or have been lied to.

- Published: 2026-03-06
- Modified: 2026-03-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/no-broken-rsa-2048-4096/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
If someone tells you RSA-2048 or even RSA-4096 has been secretly cracked, they are either lying to you or have been lied to. There is no third option that is consistent with physics, engineering, the observable behavior of governments and intelligence agencies, the visible state of the global research community, the industrial supply chain for quantum hardware, or the entire published history of quantum computing. Don't reward unverifiable claims with procurement decisions. The grown-up response: prepare without panicking Rejecting Q-FUD does not mean ignoring the quantum transition. I want to be crystal clear about this: the quantum threat to RSA is real. Shor's algorithm works. The hardware is advancing. Resource estimates are dropping. My own estimate places Q-Day around 2030 ±2 years. The harvest-now-decrypt-later threat means that data encrypted today may be vulnerable to future quantum decryption - and for any information that may need to remain confidential for years or decades, that's a serious concern.

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> Most quantum-risk-to-Bitcoin analyses rehash RSA-2048 timelines. They're missing the point. Bitcoin doesn't use RSA. It uses 256-bit ECC...

- Published: 2026-03-05
- Modified: 2026-03-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/bitcoin-quantum-risk-closer-ecc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
Most quantum-risk-to-Bitcoin analyses rehash RSA-2048 timelines. They're missing the point. Bitcoin doesn't use RSA. It uses 256-bit ECC - and Shor's algorithm will break that first. Scan the quantum computing coverage of Bitcoin and you will find a remarkable pattern. Article after article cites the same RSA-2048 qubit estimates - 20 million physical qubits (Gidney-Ekerå 2021), under a million (Gidney 2025), fewer than 100,000 (Pinnacle 2026) - then pivots to reassure readers that Bitcoin is safe because quantum computers cannot yet factor 2,048-bit numbers. The problem with this framing is simple: Bitcoin does not use RSA. It has never used RSA. Every transaction signature, every key derivation, every proof of ownership on the Bitcoin network depends on a single cryptographic primitive: ECDSA over the secp256k1 elliptic curve - a 256-bit scheme that requires dramatically fewer quantum resources to break than RSA-2048. The RSA timeline is the wrong benchmark. And using it leads analysts, journalists, and even some security professionals to systematically underestimate how soon Bitcoin faces a real quantum threat. This article is not another end-to-end quantum risk assessment of Bitcoin. It focuses on a single, specific, and widely overlooked point: the quantum security inversion between ECC and RSA, what it means for Bitcoin specifically, and why anyone modeling quantum timelines for cryptocurrency needs to use the right numbers. The wrong benchmark: why RSA-2048 timelines do not apply to Bitcoin RSA and ECC achieve equivalent classical security at vastly different key sizes. A 256-bit elliptic curve key (like secp256k1) provides roughly 128 bits of classical security — the same as a 3,072-bit RSA key. The reason is that the best classical attack on ECC (Pollard's rho) runs in $$O(\sqrt{r}) \approx O(2^{128})$$ time for a 256-bit curve, while the best classical attack on RSA (General Number Field Sieve) runs in sub-exponential time, requiring 3,072-bit keys to reach the same security level. ECC's math is classically harder per bit, so it needs fewer bits. That is the entire reason the industry adopted it.

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> The Special Competitive Studies Project (SCSP) has launched the Commission on U.S. Quantum Primacy (CUSP), a new bipartisan body...

- Published: 2026-03-05
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/scsp-commission-quantum-primacy/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United States
The Special Competitive Studies Project (SCSP) has launched the Commission on U.S. Quantum Primacy (CUSP), a new bipartisan body designed to produce a national strategy for keeping the United States ahead in quantum technologies. SCSP frames the effort not as a narrow science-policy exercise, but as a broader push to connect quantum innovation with national security, economic strength, and long-term technological advantage. CUSP is co-chaired by SCSP president Ylli Bajraktari and Senators Todd Young and Ben Ray Luján. The 14-member commission brings together leaders from Congress, DARPA, national laboratories, academia, and industry, including representatives from IonQ, IBM, Google Quantum AI, SandboxAQ, IQT, Los Alamos, Sandia, Quantum Corridor, Playground Global, and the University of Maryland. According to SCSP, the commission will focus on three priorities: building a secure quantum industrial base, preserving U.S. information advantage through quantum-era algorithms and secure architectures, and accelerating the integration of quantum and classical systems for near-term operational use. It will also assess the current U.S. quantum ecosystem and produce a final report with policy recommendations.

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> Quantum sovereignty & the new cold war; quantum geopolitics; quantum self-reliance; quantum independence; quantum strategic autonomy

- Published: 2026-03-05
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty-geopolitics/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
Quantum technologies are leaving the lab and entering the machinery of national power — and "quantum sovereignty" is becoming a blunt strategic question: who can build, operate, trust, and control quantum capabilities under geopolitical stress, without being cut off? This article is the roadmap for the Quantum Sovereignty & Geopolitics series, which treats sovereignty as more than a slogan. Starting with a primer on the multi-actor quantum race and why technological dependence becomes a strategic liability, the series traces how deep physics becomes geopolitical leverage, how that leverage reshapes alliances and markets, and how strategy ultimately turns into architecture: procurement rules, vendor dependencies, supply chains, standards, and cryptographic choices. Individual articles examine the historical parallels to earlier eras when physics breakthroughs reshaped power, the competitive dynamics between leading nations and fast followers, the role of export controls and trust boundaries now hardening around quantum hardware and PQC standards, and the operational playbook for turning sovereignty ambitions into concrete implementation decisions. The timing is not theoretical — this is already shaping policy, procurement, and partnerships.

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> Cybersecurity has always had a FUD problem. Q‑FUD is that same playbook, just dressed in quantum vocabulary. Why is Q‑FUD uniquely toxic?

- Published: 2026-03-05
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/q-fud-the-quantum-panic-industry/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day, Q-Day Prediction
Cybersecurity has always had a FUD problem. “FUD” (fear, uncertainty, and doubt) is the oldest trick in enterprise security marketing: paint a worst-case scenario, imply you’re already compromised, sprinkle in enough jargon to make the buyer feel outgunned, and then offer the “only” solution - conveniently available this quarter. Q‑FUD is that same playbook, just dressed in quantum vocabulary. Why is Q‑FUD uniquely toxic? Because it doesn’t just scare people — it distorts program execution. It pushes leaders into panic buying, distracts engineering teams with shiny “quantum-proof” bolt-ons, and drains budget from the boring work that actually reduces risk: crypto inventories, dependency mapping, certificate lifecycle hygiene, protocol upgrades, and crypto‑agility. In other words: Q‑FUD is not “just annoying marketing.” It’s a drag coefficient on the largest cryptographic infrastructure migration in history.

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> Switzerland publishes its first national quantum strategy, betting on open collaboration and ecosystem depth over big-spend national champions.

- Published: 2026-03-04
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-quantum-strategy/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland
The Swiss Quantum Commission just released Switzerland's first comprehensive quantum strategy. For a national quantum strategy, it didn't arrive with the usual fanfare we got used to. No press conference headlined by a prime minister. No headline-grabbing pledge of tens of billions in public funding. No promise to build the world's first fault-tolerant quantum computer by a suspiciously specific date. Instead, the 20-page document - authored by nine commissioners drawn from ETH Zurich, the University of Geneva, IBM Research, EPFL, and other leading Swiss institutions - reads more like a lucid strategic memo from people who actually understand the technology. And that restraint may be its most interesting quality. What the Strategy Actually Says The Swiss Quantum Strategy is the product of the Swiss Quantum Initiative (SQI), launched by the Swiss Federal Council in May 2022 and hosted by the Swiss Academy of Sciences (SCNAT). It is organized around a clear vision statement: "Switzerland: an international hub for quantum science, education, and innovation" - and built on four strategic pillars: interdisciplinary research, translational infrastructure, scaling and commercialization, and education.

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> Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (qLDPC) codes are an emerging class of quantum error-correcting codes that promise to significantly...

- Published: 2026-03-04
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-low-density-parity-check-qldpc-codes/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (qLDPC) codes are an emerging class of quantum error-correcting codes that promise to significantly reduce the overhead required for fault-tolerant quantum computing. Much like their classical LDPC counterparts, qLDPC codes are defined by sparse parity-check constraints: each check (stabilizer) acts on only a small number of qubits, and each qubit participates in only a few checks. This sparse structure can enable more efficient error syndrome extraction and potentially higher error correction performance than traditional approaches like the surface code. In this article, we dive deep into what qLDPC codes are, their origins and theory, how they work, how they differ from surface codes and other QEC methods, and why they are generating excitement - most critically, as the enabling technology behind recent architectures that could dramatically accelerate the timeline to a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC). We also examine which companies and research groups are pursuing qLDPC codes, the specific code families (such as bivariate bicycle and generalized bicycle codes) now at the center of industry roadmaps, and the challenges to making them work in practice.

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> Jesse–Victor–Gharabaghi (JVG) algorithm from "Advanced Quantum Technologies Institute" and claims of Cybersecurity Apocalypse in 2026

- Published: 2026-03-03
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cybersecurity-apocalypse-in-2026-jvg/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
A preprint manuscript (ID: 202510.1649) titled “A Novel Hybrid Quantum Circuit for Integer Factorization: End-to-End Evaluation in Simulation and Real Quantum Hardware” was published on the Preprints.org server. Authored by researchers affiliated with the Advanced Quantum Technologies Institute (AQTI), the paper introduces the "Jesse–Victor–Gharabaghi (JVG) algorithm" - a hybrid classical-quantum approach to integer factorization that proposes replacing the Quantum Fourier Transform in Shor's algorithm with a Quantum Number Theoretic Transform (QNTT) and offloading modular exponentiation to classical processors. Accompanying the preprint, a press release warned of a "Cybersecurity Apocalypse in 2026," projecting that RSA-2048 could be factored in approximately 11 hours using fewer than 5,000 physical qubits.

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> Iceberg Quantum's Pinnacle Architecture paper claims RSA-2048 can be factored with fewer than 100,000 physical qubits...

- Published: 2026-03-01
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pinnacle-architecture-break-rsa-2048-critical/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Iceberg Quantum's Pinnacle Architecture paper claims RSA-2048 can be factored with fewer than 100,000 physical qubits - a genuine 10× reduction over the previous state of the art - by replacing surface codes with quantum LDPC codes. The result is credible but shifts difficulty from qubit count to equally daunting engineering challenges: non-local connectivity, fast QLDPC decoding, and month-long sustained fault-tolerant operation. In my paper announcement post I argued that despite hyped-up headlines, the paper does not materially change when a cryptographically relevant quantum computer might arrive. Since then, a number of major experts have weighed in and agree that the core insight is valid while flagging that the hard part remains building the hardware. No government agency has revised any cryptographic timeline in response. But since the hyped up headlines, even from organizations like the New Scientist are not abating, let's dig in into what the Pinnacle Architecture paper actually achieved. The paper and its claims in detail The preprint ("The Pinnacle Architecture: Reducing the cost of breaking RSA-2048 to 100,000 physical qubits using quantum LDPC codes," arXiv:2602.11457, February 12, 2026) comes from eight researchers at Iceberg Quantum in Sydney: Paul Webster, Lucas Berent, Omprakash Chandra, Evan T. Hockings, Nouédyn Baspin, Felix Thomsen, Samuel C. Smith, and Lawrence Z. Cohen.

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> There is no quantum operating system. Not in any meaningful sense of the term. There is no software layer that can take a...

- Published: 2026-02-28
- Modified: 2026-03-17
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/quantum-operating-system-os/
- Categories: Quantum Systems Integration, Quantum Computing, Quantum Open Architecture QOA
The argument for quantum computing's "PC moment" has become surprisingly compelling. QuantWare ships superconducting QPUs to customers in 22 countries. Qblox sells modular control stacks to over 100 labs. Bluefors has installed 1,800 cryogenic systems worldwide. The Quantum Open Architecture movement and reference designs like the Quantum Utility Block are proving that you can assemble a working quantum computer from commercial off-the-shelf components — much as Dell once assembled PCs from Intel CPUs, Seagate drives, and Microsoft software. The quantum systems integration challenge is real, and a growing number of organizations — from Italy's first quantum computer at the University of Naples to Elevate Quantum's Q-PAC facility in Colorado — are tackling it. But there is a problem nobody has solved yet. A problem so fundamental that it threatens to become the bottleneck for the entire open-architecture quantum ecosystem. There is no quantum operating system. Not in any meaningful sense of the term. There is no software layer that can take a QuantWare QPU, a Qblox controller, a Bluefors cryostat, and a Riverlane decoder — and orchestrate them into a functioning, multi-user, fault-tolerant quantum computer. No equivalent of the Linux kernel that lets you swap hardware vendors without rewriting your entire stack. No unified system for managing qubit allocation, error correction, job scheduling, calibration drift, and security across heterogeneous quantum hardware. What exists instead is a patchwork. IBM's Qiskit Runtime handles job scheduling and error mitigation — but only for IBM hardware. Riverlane's Deltaflow manages real-time error correction — but focuses on decoding, not full system orchestration. Q-CTRL's Fire Opal provides autonomous calibration — but as a middleware layer, not an OS. Google, Microsoft, and Amazon each run sophisticated internal control stacks — but none are downloadable, portable, or open. The field sits in its mainframe era: vertically integrated, vendor-specific, and pre-standardization. Building a true Quantum OS requires solving engineering problems that have no classical precedent — from abstracting over physics that differs as fundamentally as microwave pulses differ from laser beams, to decoding error syndromes faster than they accumulate, to calibrating hardware that drifts on millisecond timescales. This article maps the full technical stack, layer by layer: what each component must do, what engineering challenges it faces, who is building what, and where the critical gaps remain.

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> Google will not put post-quantum signatures into traditional X.509 certificates for Chrome. Instead, the company announced in February 2026...

- Published: 2026-02-28
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/googles-merkle-tree-mtc-https/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
Google will not put post-quantum signatures into traditional X.509 certificates for Chrome. Instead, the company announced in February 2026 a fundamentally different architecture - Merkle Tree Certificates (MTCs) - that shrinks quantum-resistant TLS authentication data from roughly 14,700 bytes down to as little as 736 bytes, making post-quantum HTTPS potentially smaller than today's classical certificate chains. The approach, developed jointly with Cloudflare and now being standardized through the IETF's newly formed PLANTS working group, integrates Certificate Transparency directly into the issuance process, replaces per-certificate signatures with compact hash-based inclusion proofs, and proposes an entirely new Chrome Quantum-resistant Root Store (CQRS) that accepts only MTCs. If it succeeds, this could define how billions of TLS connections authenticate in the post-quantum era - but it also concentrates significant power in browser vendors and leaves non-browser clients navigating an uncertain path. The signature size crisis that forced Google's hand Post-quantum key exchange is already deployed at scale. Roughly half of Cloudflare's traffic uses ML-KEM, adding only ~2 KB to handshakes. Post-quantum signatures, however, remain the hard unsolved problem for TLS certificates. A typical TLS handshake today transmits five signatures and two public keys across the certificate chain and Certificate Transparency SCTs - totaling about 1,248 bytes of authentication data. Replacing these with NIST-standardized ML-DSA-44 (FIPS 204) would balloon that figure to 14,724 bytes (five signatures at 2,420 bytes each, plus two public keys at 1,312 bytes each). That represents an ~12× increase that pushes well past TCP's initial congestion window of roughly 14.5 KB, triggering additional round trips that Cloudflare's empirical measurements show can cause 60%+ slowdowns in TLS handshake latency.

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> The payments industry has navigated big cryptographic transitions before. The migration from magnetic stripes to EMV chips took the better part...

- Published: 2026-02-23
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/payments-quantum-pqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
The payments industry has navigated big cryptographic transitions before. The migration from magnetic stripes to EMV chips took the better part of two decades and cost billions. The shift from SHA-1 to SHA-256 certificates was painful but bounded - it mostly meant updating software, not ripping out hardware. The post-quantum transition is different in kind, not just degree. It touches every layer of the payments stack simultaneously: the silicon inside a contactless card, the hardware security modules in bank data centers, the message formats that glue the global system together, and the settlement infrastructure operated by central banks. To understand why, consider what happens when you tap your card at a coffee shop. That seemingly instantaneous transaction triggers a cascade of cryptographic operations spanning multiple organizations, networks, and jurisdictions. Your card generates a cryptogram using keys stored in its secure element. The terminal authenticates the card using a certificate chain rooted in the card network's certificate authority. The authorization request travels through the acquirer's network to the issuer, wrapped in TLS sessions secured by RSA or ECC key exchange. If the issuer approves, the settlement eventually flows through interbank networks - SWIFT, Fedwire, TARGET2 - each with their own certificate hierarchies, HSM dependencies, and signature requirements. As I previously mapped in detail, a single cross-border payment can touch dozens of distinct quantum-vulnerable cryptographic operations, each managed by a different entity with its own upgrade cycle.

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> A comprehensive quantum security / post-quantum cryptography (PQC) migration program plan could contain over 120,000 discrete tasks

- Published: 2026-02-14
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-security-pqc-program-plan/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
When I tell fellow CISOs, board members, or even seasoned program managers that the integrated program plan for a comprehensive quantum security / post-quantum cryptography (PQC) migration I recently worked on contained over 120,000 discrete tasks, the reaction is almost always the same. First, there is a polite silence. Then, the inevitable furrowing of the brow. Finally, the question: "Surely, you mean you counted every single vulnerability as a task?" They assume the number is an artifact of bad accounting - a "padding" of the stats where every server patch or every re-keyed certificate was listed as a separate line item to make the project look impressive. They assume that if we just grouped things logically, the number would collapse to a manageable 500 or 1,000 lines on a Gantt chart. I assure you: that number is real. It is not inflated. In fact, for a Global 2000 enterprise with a heavy operational technology (OT) footprint, 120,000 tasks might be conservative. I have served as a project manager on nation-critical overhauls: from the redevelopment of the UK’s centralized payments infrastructure, where downtime threatens the national GDP, to the implementation of Australia’s national electronic health records, a system impacting every citizen and practitioner in the country. I have stepped in to turn around failing $500M IT transformations. Yet, even with that background, I can say with certainty: the scale and complexity of making a global enterprise quantum-ready is a challenge in a category of its own. A brief reality check: I am not suggesting that every organization should, or even can, launch a 120,000-task program on day one. In the real world of budget cycles and competing priorities, most will need to deconstruct this into manageable projects and multiple funding rounds. That is a valid, often necessary, approach. But even if your Year 1 roadmap only contains 500 tasks, you must understand the full 120,000-task horizon to properly prioritize, manage interdependencies, and avoid building on a foundation that won't support the weight of the years to come. I have been warning about this scale for years. Through my work advising global telecommunications giants, financial institutions, and critical infrastructure operators; through my teaching (see e.g. SANS SEC529: Quantum Security Readiness for Executives) and in the articles I’ve published here on PostQuantum.com, I have tried to articulate a singular, uncomfortable truth: PQC migration is the largest, most complex digital infrastructure overhaul in history. It is larger than the Y2K remediation. It is more pervasive than any cloud migration. It is more technically intricate than the shift to Zero Trust. It makes your SAP S/4HANA migration look like a weekend project. And the math that gets you to 120,000 tasks is not pessimistic. It is arithmetic. The "120,000 tasks" figure is not a measure of inefficiency; it is a measure of honesty. It reflects what happens when you stop treating cryptography as a background utility - like electricity, assumed to be always on and always safe - and start treating it as the structural steel of your digital existence. When that steel begins to fracture under the weight of the quantum threat, replacing it while the building is still occupied requires a level of orchestration that defies standard IT project management. In this article, I will try again to illustrate the level of complexity based on such a 120,000-task plan. We will move beyond the high-level bullet points and "awareness" slides to the gritty, granular reality of what it takes to secure a global enterprise against the quantum threat. We will look at why "technical PQC upgrade" - the actual fixing of the crypto - is just a small part of the work, and why the rest is where your program will live or die. If you are a CISO or a direct report to one, this is intended to recalibrate your mental model for what lies ahead - and to give you the vocabulary to explain it to your board.

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> EU published COM(2026) 13 final - a proposed directive amending NIS2 as part of a broader cybersecurity simplification package...

- Published: 2026-02-13
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/eu-pqc-nis2/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Europe
On 20 January 2026, the European Commission published COM(2026) 13 final - a proposed directive amending NIS2 as part of a broader cybersecurity simplification package tied to the upcoming Cybersecurity Act 2. The proposal covers a range of updates: streamlining scope definitions, simplifying cross-border supervision, introducing ransomware reporting requirements, and enabling cyber posture certification as a compliance tool. But buried in the targeted amendments is a provision that fundamentally changes how the EU treats quantum risk in law. PQC goes from implied to named The proposal adds a new Article 7(2)(k) to NIS2, requiring Member States to adopt policies within their national cybersecurity strategies "for the transition to post-quantum cryptography, taking into account the transition timelines and relevant requirements set out in applicable Union legal acts and policies." Until now, PQC readiness under NIS2 was a matter of connecting dots - between the directive's general requirement for "state-of-the-art" cryptography policies, the EU's PQC Recommendation from April 2024, and the coordinated implementation roadmap published in June 2025. The legal logic was sound, but it required interpretation. COM(2026) 13 eliminates that interpretive gap. If adopted, PQC migration planning becomes a mandatory, named component of national cybersecurity strategy for every EU Member State.

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> The Pinnacle Architecture paper claims an end‑to‑end, fault‑tolerant design that could factor an RSA‑2048 modulus at under 100,000 physical qubits

- Published: 2026-02-13
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/pinnacle-architecture-q-day/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
Since the preprint paper of The Pinnacle Architecture preprint hit and its Quantum Insider coverage ran, my phone has been ringing off the hook. The question behind most of those calls is simple: does this mean RSA is suddenly in imminent trouble? Is it true that this paper brought the Q-Day closer 2-5 years? (Who said that?!?)... The short answer is NO - not in the operational sense that a Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computer (CRQC) is suddenly “around the corner.” But the longer answer is more interesting: this paper is a credible attempt to push Shor’s algorithm resource estimates below the “surface code floor,” and IF its biggest assumptions land well, it could shave years off some Q‑Day forecasts. What the Pinnacle Architecture actually claims The Pinnacle Architecture paper claims an end‑to‑end, fault‑tolerant design that could factor an RSA‑2048 modulus at under 100,000 physical qubits under a very specific set of physical assumptions: physical error rate 10⁻³, code-cycle time 1 μs, and classical reaction time 10 μs. Crucially, the paper is not saying “one hundred thousand qubits always breaks RSA.” Its headline point is a time-qubits trade‑off. Under the same 10⁻³ / 1 μs / 10 μs regime, the authors’ own table gives approximately:
But buried in the targeted amendments is a provision that fundamentally changes how the EU treats quantum risk in law. PQC goes from implied to named The proposal adds a new Article 7(2)(k) to NIS2, requiring Member States to adopt policies within their national cybersecurity strategies "for the transition to post-quantum cryptography, taking into account the transition timelines and relevant requirements set out in applicable Union legal acts and policies." Until now, PQC readiness under NIS2 was a matter of connecting dots - between the directive's general requirement for "state-of-the-art" cryptography policies, the EU's PQC Recommendation from April 2024, and the coordinated implementation roadmap published in June 2025. The legal logic was sound, but it required interpretation. COM(2026) 13 eliminates that interpretive gap. If adopted, PQC migration planning becomes a mandatory, named component of national cybersecurity strategy for every EU Member State.

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> Peking University demonstrates a 20-user chip-based TF-QKD network spanning 3,700 km using integrated photonics and optical microcombs...

- Published: 2026-02-12
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/peking-university-chip-tfqkd-network/
- Categories: Research
- Tags: China
12 Feb 2026 - A team led by Jianwei Wang and Lin Chang at Peking University has demonstrated an integrated-photonics twin-field quantum key distribution (TF-QKD) network connecting 20 independent client chips across ten wavelength-multiplexed channels, with each channel surpassing the repeaterless bound at 370 km in spooled fiber. The results, published in Nature, achieve a total networking capability — defined as the number of client pairs multiplied by communication distance — of 3,700 km without any trusted relay nodes. The system, named the "Weiming Quantum Chip-Network," uses two types of integrated photonic chip. At the server node, a silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) optical microcomb generates ultralow-noise coherent frequency combs with Hz-level linewidths, serving as both seed lasers and phase references for the entire network. At the client side, 20 indium phosphide (InP) transmitter chips — each measuring 4.6 × 2 mm — monolithically integrate lasers, phase modulators, intensity modulators, and variable optical attenuators. The 20 client chips were randomly selected from a 3-inch wafer without preselection, with 117 of 120 modulators functioning as designed — a 97.5% yield. Each client chip locks its local laser to the microcomb reference via optical injection locking, regenerating light with intrinsic linewidths of approximately 60 Hz from lasers that originally exhibited MHz-level noise. At 370 km, the network's secure key rates exceeded the Pirandola–Laurenza–Ottaviani–Banchi (PLOB) repeaterless bound by 51.5% to 251.4% across all ten channels. The microcomb demonstrated 12-hour operational stability with intensity fluctuations of only 0.6%.

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> QuantWare is a Delft, Netherlands-based quantum computing startup that provides superconducting quantum processors...

- Published: 2026-02-11
- Modified: 2026-02-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantware/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
QuantWare is a Delft, Netherlands-based quantum computing startup that provides superconducting quantum processors as off-the-shelf products. Founded in 2021 as a spin-out from TU Delft’s QuTech institute by Matt Rijlaarsdam and Alessandro Bruno, the company aims to be the “Intel of quantum computing” by supplying affordable, high-quality quantum QPU (quantum processing unit) chips for others to build full quantum systems. QuantWare launched the world’s first commercially available superconducting QPU in 2021 - a 5-qubit device called Soprano - marking the first time superconducting quantum chips were productized “off the shelf” for general purchase. Superconducting qubits are one of the most mature quantum hardware modalities (used by Google and IBM to achieve milestones like quantum supremacy), and QuantWare’s strategy leverages this maturity while dramatically lowering entry barriers for new quantum players. QuantWare has rapidly established itself as a key enabler in the quantum ecosystem. Its processors are used by customers in 20+ countries, and the company was the first to power working quantum computers in at least five different countries’ quantum programs. By making quantum hardware more accessible (delivering chips in weeks instead of years), QuantWare allows organizations to focus on software and applications rather than reinventing hardware from scratch. The company’s unique technological centerpiece is its VIO™ 3D QPU architecture, which uses chiplets and vertical interconnects to break through scaling bottlenecks in superconducting qubit design. In essence, QuantWare is building the backbone of an open, modular quantum computing supply chain - selling high-performance quantum chips “off the shelf” so that others can assemble quantum computers much like classical computer makers assemble PCs.

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> USTC team published a paper that quietly redrew the map of what device-independent quantum key distribution (DI-QKD) can do

- Published: 2026-02-08
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/china-di-qkd-100/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Quantum Networks
- Tags: China
A team at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) published a paper in Science that quietly redrew the map of what device-independent quantum key distribution (DI-QKD) can do. Led by Bo-Wei Lu, Chao-Wei Yang, Run-Qi Wang, Xiao-Hui Bao, and the ever-present Jian-Wei Pan - the physicist sometimes called China's quantum communications supremo - the experiment demonstrated DI-QKD across 11 kilometres of optical fibre with full finite-key security, and showed positive key rates extending to 100 kilometres in the asymptotic regime. To appreciate why this matters, consider where DI-QKD stood just three and a half years ago. (I covered all these experiments in my DI-QKD explainer) In July 2022, three independent groups published DI-QKD demonstrations almost simultaneously. The Oxford experiment (Nadlinger et al.) extracted 95,628 secure key bits - but over a distance of 2 metres, with both trapped strontium ions sitting in the same laboratory. The Munich experiment (Zhang et al.) used rubidium-87 atoms separated across a university campus by 700 metres of fibre, but could only demonstrate positive asymptotic key rates - never enough statistics for finite-key extraction in its 75-hour runtime. A USTC photonic experiment showed feasibility to 220 metres but lacked the random basis switching required for a complete DI-QKD protocol. As Antonio Acín, one of the theoretical architects of device-independent cryptography, observed at the time from ICFO Barcelona: in practice, we do not usually need full cryptographic schemes to secure a transaction between two people who are only two metres apart - taking a couple of steps would be more than enough. The February 2026 result changes that equation. The distance progression from Oxford's 2 metres to USTC's 11 kilometres represents roughly a 3,000-fold improvement in three and a half years. And the 100-kilometre asymptotic demonstration - while not yet yielding extractable finite-size key at that range - shows that the physics does not break down at metropolitan and intercity scales. For readers who want the technical foundations of why DI-QKD matters and how it differs from conventional QKD, my comprehensive DI-QKD explainer covers the Bell inequality framework, the trust hierarchy, and the security proof architecture in detail.

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> India’s Department of Science and Technology (DST) published the “Implementation of Quantum Safe Ecosystem in India"

- Published: 2026-02-06
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/indias-quantum-safe-roadmap/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: India
India’s Department of Science and Technology (DST) published the “Implementation of Quantum Safe Ecosystem in India – Report of the Task Force.” This report, produced by a national Task Force under DST, lays out a strategic roadmap for transitioning India’s digital infrastructure to quantum-resistant security. The Task Force was chaired by Dr. Rajkumar Upadhyay (CEO of C-DOT) and convened experts from government, industry, academia, and R&D labs to address the looming threat that advances in quantum computing pose to current encryption. The report’s goal is to ensure the security, resilience, and continuity of India’s information and communication ecosystems in the face of “Q-Day” – the day when quantum computers can break today’s cryptography. The Task Force was established as part of India’s National Quantum Mission (NQM) to strengthen national capabilities in quantum technologies and guide the adoption of quantum-safe cryptographic solutions. Specifically, it was tasked formulating phased migration guidelines, recommending standards for post-quantum cryptography (PQC) adoption, and planning for a national testing and certification infrastructure. To tackle these broad objectives, the Task Force split into two sub-groups: one led by the Telecommunication Engineering Centre (TEC) focusing on standards, testing, and certification of quantum-safe products, and another led by the Data Security Council of India (DSCI) focusing on quantum resiliency, crypto-agility, and PQC migration. The two sub-groups’ findings - one addressing technical frameworks for PQC and quantum key distribution (QKD) and the other addressing migration strategies and policies - were integrated into this unified report.

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> USTC team demonstrates first quantum repeater building block where entanglement outlasts its own generation time over 10 km fiber

- Published: 2026-02-05
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/ustc-scalable-quantum-repeater/
- Categories: Research
- Tags: China
5 Feb 2026 - A team led by Jian-Wei Pan and Qiang Zhang at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) has demonstrated what the field has been waiting for: remote memory-memory entanglement that survives longer than the time it takes to create it. Published in Nature, the result uses trapped calcium-40 ions connected by 10 km of spooled telecom fiber to achieve a coherence time of 550 ± 36 milliseconds against an average entanglement generation time of 450 ms — crossing a threshold that makes multi-stage quantum repeaters physically possible for the first time. The team also demonstrated device-independent quantum key distribution (DI-QKD) over the same architecture, generating 1,917 secret key bits over 10 km with finite-size security analysis and showing a positive asymptotic key rate over 101 km of fiber — extending the achievable distance for DI-QKD by more than two orders of magnitude over previous demonstrations. My Analysis: Why 100 Milliseconds Changes Everything The headline number here is not impressive in absolute terms. A coherence time of 550 ms exceeding a generation time of 450 ms gives a margin of roughly 100 milliseconds — barely a fifth of a second. The distance is 10 km of spooled fiber in a lab. No one is building a continental quantum network with this hardware tomorrow. But that misses the point entirely. This result crosses a fundamental threshold that separates "interesting physics experiment" from "building block for a scalable architecture." Every previous demonstration of remote entanglement over metropolitan distances — using atomic ensembles, single atoms, or diamond color centers — suffered from the same fatal limitation: entanglement decohered faster than it could be established. That means you could never store entanglement in one link while waiting for the next link to succeed. You could never chain segments together. You could never build a quantum repeater. The USTC result changes this. As Ronald Hanson (QuTech/Delft) and Tracy Northup (Innsbruck) noted in their accompanying Nature commentary, it represents the first time entanglement across a long-distance link has been generated faster than it decays — the essential prerequisite for chaining repeater nodes together.

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> Hong Kong’s central bank HKMA unveils a “Quantum Preparedness Index” to gauge how ready its banks are for the quantum computing era

- Published: 2026-02-03
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/hkma-quantum-preparedness-index/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: China, Finance & Banking, Payments
Hong Kong’s central bank unveils a “Quantum Preparedness Index” to gauge how ready its banks are for the quantum computing era, underscoring a global push among regulators to future-proof financial security. Hong Kong’s de facto central bank, the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA), has announced the launch of a Quantum Preparedness Index (QPI) as part of its new Fintech Promotion Blueprint unveiled in early February 2026. The QPI is a first-of-its-kind initiative aimed at assessing how prepared the city’s banking sector is for the age of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) - the next generation of encryption designed to withstand attacks from powerful quantum computers. In essence, the index will provide a comprehensive snapshot of banks’ current readiness and establish a measurable roadmap for improvement in the coming years. By doing so, the HKMA intends to identify gaps, set targets, and guide practical support for banks through the transition to quantum-safe security.

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> Silicon donor qubits exhibit strongly biased noise — phase-flip errors dominate while bit-flip errors are essentially absent. This asymmetry...

- Published: 2026-01-29
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/silicon-biased-noise-advantage/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
When people say "silicon quantum computing," they often speak as if it is one thing. It is not. It is at least three distinct approaches, built on the same material but employing different physics, different fabrication methods, and different strategies for reaching fault-tolerant scale. Understanding these differences — and the tradeoffs each makes — is essential for anyone tracking which version of silicon quantum computing is most likely to matter, and when. All three approaches share silicon's core advantages: compatibility with semiconductor industry infrastructure, small qubit footprint (~50 nm), and long coherence times enabled by isotopic purification of ²⁸Si. But they diverge sharply on how qubits are defined, controlled, and manufactured. Approach 1: Atomically Precise Donor Qubits The idea: Embed individual phosphorus atoms into a silicon crystal and use their nuclear spins (or the spin of the donor's extra electron) as qubits. Multiple donors placed within a few nanometres of each other share a single electron, creating a tightly coupled register with native multi-qubit connectivity through the hyperfine interaction.

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> Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) is doing for quantum computing what the PC revolution did for classical computing...

- Published: 2026-01-29
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-open-architecture-qoa/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Open Architecture QOA, Quantum Systems Integration
Today, a sea change is underway. Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) is doing for quantum computing what the PC revolution did for classical computing - opening up the ecosystem. Just as the computing world shifted from monolithic mainframes to modular PCs with swappable parts, quantum tech is embracing modularity and specialization. Instead of one vendor building and owning the whole machine, different specialists provide the processor, the control systems, the cryogenic fridge, the software, etc., all designed to work together via common interfaces. This QOA approach promises faster innovation, lower costs, and wider access, heralding what many are calling the “PC moment” of quantum computing. In the words of IBM’s Jay Gambetta, even the industry leaders now admit: “I fundamentally don’t believe the future is a full-stack solution from one provider.” In this article, we’ll explore what Quantum Open Architecture really means and why it’s taking off. We’ll journey from the mainframe-like days of quantum research to today’s plug-and-play quantum stacks, examining the economic, technical, and geopolitical forces driving QOA. We’ll break down the anatomy of the QOA stack - from quantum chips and cryogenic refrigerators up to software and cloud - and meet the key players at each layer, from startups like QuantWare and Qblox to integrators like ParTec and TreQ. Real-world case studies - in the Netherlands, Israel, the US, and Italy - will show QOA in action, powering national labs and university systems. We’ll also discuss what QOA means for quantum sovereignty (think technological independence) and how it’s reshaping market dynamics. Finally, we’ll gaze forward (in a clearly marked speculative section) to where this could lead: imagine standard quantum “sockets,” app stores for quantum software, hardware-as-a-service, and truly global plug-and-play quantum ecosystems.

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> A Chinese research team demonstrates the first stabilizer-based quantum error detection in a silicon quantum processor...

- Published: 2026-01-29
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-quantum-error-detection/
- Categories: Research
29 Jan 2026 - Quantum error correction is the wall that separates toy quantum computers from useful ones. Every qubit platform must eventually climb it. The first step up that wall is not correcting errors — that requires mid-circuit measurement and real-time feedback, capabilities that push the engineering envelope of any architecture. The first step is detecting them: identifying that an error has occurred, which qubit it affected, and what type of error it was, without destroying the quantum information you are trying to protect. For silicon spin qubits, that first step has now been taken. A team at the Shenzhen International Quantum Academy (SZIQA) and Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech), led by Yu He and Dapeng Yu, has demonstrated stabilizer-based quantum error detection in a donor-based silicon quantum processor. Published in Nature Electronics, the work uses four phosphorus nuclear spin qubits and one electron spin auxiliary qubit to detect arbitrary single-qubit errors using the same stabilizer measurement framework that underpins the surface code and other leading error-correcting codes. Previous error correction attempts in silicon — by Takeda et al. and van Riggelen et al. in 2022 — demonstrated phase-flip error correction using coherent conditional rotations, a different and more limited approach. This is the first time stabilizer-based error detection — the technique compatible with fault-tolerant architectures such as the surface code — has been realized in a silicon quantum processor. The Processor and Its Capabilities The SZIQA team's processor is a phosphorus donor cluster in isotopically purified ²⁸Si, fabricated using STM hydrogen lithography. The cluster contains five ³¹P nuclei and one fortuitous hydrogen nucleus, all coupled to a shared electron through hyperfine interactions. Four of the five phosphorus nuclear spins serve as data qubits, while the electron spin functions as an auxiliary qubit for readout.

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> China's Micius quantum satellite — the world's first quantum communication satellite — has reentered Earth's atmosphere...

- Published: 2026-01-27
- Modified: 2026-04-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/micius-satellite-reentry/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: China
27 Jan 2026 — China's Micius satellite (墨子号), the world's first quantum communication satellite, has reentered Earth's atmosphere, according to tracking data from N2YO showing the spacecraft's status as decayed as of late January 2026. The ~635 kg satellite had orbited at approximately 500 km altitude in a sun-synchronous orbit since its launch on August 16, 2016 from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center. Designed for a two-year mission, it operated for nearly a decade - far exceeding its intended lifespan. The reentry is consistent with heightened atmospheric drag from the current Solar Cycle 25 solar maximum, which has accelerated orbital decay for multiple low-Earth orbit spacecraft. No official statement from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) has been issued at the time of writing. (As far as I was able to find.) What Micius Achieved It is difficult to overstate what this single satellite accomplished. Named after the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi - who discovered that light travels in straight lines and was likely the first person to record a pinhole image - Micius became the defining platform for space-based quantum communication.

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> CISA released a definitive advisory titled "Product Categories for Technologies Use Post-Quantum Cryptography Standards"

- Published: 2026-01-24
- Modified: 2026-02-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cisa-pqc-procurement/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) released a definitive advisory titled "Product Categories for Technologies Use Post-Quantum Cryptography Standards." This document, mandated by Executive Order 14306 (June 2025), fundamentally alters the procurement landscape for the United States federal government and, by extension, the global technology supply chain. The advisory bifurcates the Information Technology marketplace into two distinct classifications: "Widely Available" PQC products and "Transitioning" products. This categorization is not merely descriptive; it is prescriptive. For categories deemed "Widely Available" - which notably include Cloud Services (PaaS/IaaS), Web Browsers, and Endpoint Security - CISA has effectively signaled that federal agencies should cease the procurement of non-compliant legacy products immediately. Conversely, the "Transitioning" category acknowledges sectors where the supply chain is not yet mature enough for a hard mandate, such as traditional networking hardware and complex Identity, Credential, and Access Management (ICAM) systems. The advisory explicitly references the NIST-standardized algorithms: FIPS 203 (ML-KEM) for key encapsulation, and FIPS 204 (ML-DSA) and FIPS 205 (SLH-DSA) for digital signatures. This moves the conversation from theoretical "quantum readiness" to specific, auditable compliance with Federal Information Processing Standards.

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> At its core, quantum sovereignty means having full control over the critical layers of quantum technology domestically...

- Published: 2026-01-20
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
At its core, quantum sovereignty means having full control over the critical layers of quantum technology domestically - the ability to design, manufacture, and operate quantum systems without external dependency. In practice, this implies a country could build a complete full-stack quantum ecosystem entirely within its national borders: from quantum chips and cryogenic hardware to software, algorithms, and encryption protocols. The allure of this vision is easy to grasp. Quantum computing and related tech are poised to be as transformational in the 21st century as semiconductors and the internet were in the last. A fully sovereign quantum capability would mean a nation can harness this power for its own economic growth and national security, without having to rely on others’ equipment or know-how. Especially for major powers, the idea of being dependent on a foreign supplier (or rival) for something as strategic as code-breaking quantum computers or unhackable communications is unacceptable. Thus, quantum sovereignty has become a buzzword in policy circles, often wrapped into broader calls for “strategic autonomy” or “technological sovereignty” in emerging technologies.

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> The Citi Institute - a research arm of a banking giant Citigroup - published a warning titled “Quantum Threat: The Trillion-Dollar Security Race Is On”

- Published: 2026-01-18
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/citi-quantum-threat-report/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
The Citi Institute - a research arm of global banking giant Citigroup - published a stark warning titled “Quantum Threat: The Trillion-Dollar Security Race Is On.” In unequivocal terms, Citi’s analysts predict that within the next decade quantum computers are likely to become powerful enough to break widely used public-key encryption. They caution that the economic and geopolitical fallout of an unprepared “Q-Day” – the day a quantum computer shatters our current cryptography – could be severe, disrupting the digital security we take for granted across finance, government, and critical infrastructure. It’s not every day that a major financial institution frames a technology risk in terms of trillions of dollars and national security, which is why this report is turning heads far beyond the IT departments. Citi’s message: the quantum threat is no longer just a theoretical discussion for academics and engineers, but a tangible business and security risk that demands boardroom attention. What makes Citi’s frank assessment so significant is the messenger itself. When a bank of Citi’s stature (with a foot firmly in both Wall Street and cyber defense circles) declares that the countdown to Q-Day is on, people listen. Having spent over a decade in the trenches of quantum-safe security, I see this as an important moment – a sign that quantum risk has gone mainstream in the consciousness of institutional finance. How Soon is Q-Day? Citi’s Timeline for Quantum Codebreaking Central to Citi’s analysis is the question: when will a cryptographically relevant quantum computer arrive? The report surveys expert forecasts and even a prediction market to bracket the timelines. One data point comes from a Kalshi Inc. survey (a public prediction market), where roughly 8% of respondents expect a “useful” quantum computer (i.e. one capable of cracking RSA-2048 encryption or complex molecular simulations) by 2027, rising to 39% by 2030 and just over 50% by 2035. In other words, there’s essentially a coin-flip chance that we’ll hit Q-Day within the next ~10 years – and a non-trivial chance it could happen even sooner.

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> A single mobile banking payment triggers millions of cryptographic function calls across nine parties. Here's what actually happens...

- Published: 2026-01-14
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-cbom-mobile-banking/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
A single mobile banking payment triggers millions of cryptographic function calls across nine parties. Here's what actually happens - from silicon to settlement - and why it matters for quantum readiness. The Cryptographic Iceberg Inside a Mobile Banking Transaction 320 function calls before you even type an amount It takes roughly half a second. You press your thumb against the sensor, your banking app opens, and a familiar interface appears — account balance, recent transactions, a "Send Money" button. The gesture feels effortless, even mundane. You might do it six or seven times a day without thinking. But in that half-second, your phone has executed approximately 320 cryptographic function calls. Not after you transfer money. Not when you enter an amount or confirm a payee. Before any of that. Just to get you from a locked screen to an app that's ready to accept instructions, your device has activated 20 distinct cryptographic processes, called upon 15 different cryptographic libraries, instantiated 31 cryptographic objects, and invoked 90 unique cryptographic functions.

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> The G7 Cyber Expert Group (CEG) issued a landmark roadmap for the financial sector’s transition to post-quantum cryptography.

- Published: 2026-01-12
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/g7-postquantum-roadmap-pqc/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
The G7 Cyber Expert Group (CEG) - an international team of cybersecurity authorities co-chaired by the U.S. Treasury and the Bank of England - issued a landmark roadmap for the financial sector’s transition to post-quantum cryptography. This high-level plan, formally titled “Advancing a Coordinated Roadmap for the Transition to Post‑Quantum Cryptography in the Financial Sector,” is aimed at banks, financial market infrastructures, regulators, technology vendors, and other key players across G7 economies. Its message is clear: the clock is ticking on today’s encryption. Quantum computing advances could render the cryptographic foundations of modern finance obsolete within the next decade. The G7 is urging a proactive, coordinated shift to quantum-resistant security now - before quantum-capable adversaries can exploit the gap.

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> Three pillars anchor the US PQC framework: the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act (federal law that no executive order can undo)...

- Published: 2026-01-06
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/us-pqc-regulatory-framework-2026/
- Categories: Quantum Policies, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: United States
Three pillars anchor the US PQC framework: the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act (federal law that no executive order can undo), NSM-10's 2035 migration target (still in force), and NIST's finalized FIPS standards (published August 2024). The Trump administration's June 2025 executive order streamlined, rather than eliminated, PQC obligations, removing prescriptive procurement mandates while retaining the CISA product category list and a TLS 1.3 deadline of January 2, 2030. For CISOs, the bottom line is clear: the regulatory floor has not changed, but the enforcement ceiling has been lowered, creating a window where proactive organizations gain competitive advantage while laggards risk exposure to both quantum threats and future compliance crackdowns. Three federal laws form the immovable foundation The US PQC framework rests on three enacted federal statutes that survive any change of administration. Unlike executive orders or agency memoranda, these laws require congressional action to repeal. The Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act (H.R. 7535, Public Law 117-260) was signed by President Biden on December 21, 2022, after passing the House 420-3 and clearing the Senate by unanimous consent. Sponsored by Rep. Ro Khanna (D-CA) with bipartisan support from Rep. Nancy Mace (R-SC) and others, the Act imposes concrete obligations on the executive branch. Within 180 days of enactment (by approximately June 2023), OMB was required to issue guidance directing each federal agency to establish and maintain a prioritized inventory of IT systems vulnerable to quantum decryption. Within one year of NIST issuing PQC standards - which occurred on August 13, 2024, making the deadline approximately August 2025 - OMB must issue guidance requiring agencies to begin prioritizing migration. The A

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> Behind every quantum processor sits an ecosystem of enabling technologies, specialist suppliers, and critical infrastructure without which...

- Published: 2026-01-06
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/quantum-computing-supply/
- Categories: Quantum Ecosystem, Quantum Computing
A map of the hidden supply chains behind every major quantum computing modality — and a guide to where value, risk, and strategic leverage actually sit. The headlines go to the companies designing quantum processors, but behind every qubit sits an ecosystem of enabling technologies without which the processor is just a blueprint: dilution refrigerators, precision laser systems, photonic foundries, ultra-high vacuum chambers, isotopically purified silicon, cryogenic cabling, and classical control electronics built by a small number of specialist suppliers. These supply chains are not interchangeable — each modality draws from a different industrial base, faces different bottlenecks, and carries different geopolitical vulnerabilities. This article is the capstone of the "What It Takes to Build a Quantum Computer" Deep Dive series. It introduces the strategic themes that cut across all five modality-specific ecosystem analyses — concentration risk, vertical integration, sovereignty implications, and shared dependencies — then links to the dedicated deep dives on superconducting, trapped-ion, photonic, neutral-atom, and silicon spin supply chains, plus the cross-cutting infrastructure technologies that will determine which quantum computers actually scale.

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> Silicon spin qubits bet that the trillion-dollar semiconductor industry can be repurposed for quantum computing. Here's who wins if silicon spin wins

- Published: 2026-01-06
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/silicon-spin-quantum-ecosystem/
- Categories: Quantum Ecosystem
In September 2025, a team from the Australian startup Diraq and Belgium's imec published a result in Nature that no one in the semiconductor industry could ignore. They had fabricated silicon quantum dot spin qubits on imec's industrial 300-millimeter wafer line - the same kind of manufacturing platform that produces billions of classical processors every year - and achieved two-qubit gate fidelities consistently exceeding 99%. Not on a single heroic device selected from hundreds. On randomly chosen chips, pulled at random from the production run. Three months later, Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC), an Australian company founded by physicist Michelle Simmons, published its own Nature paper demonstrating an 11-qubit, multi-register processor with fidelities reaching 99.99% - and, remarkably, performance that improved as more qubits were added. In London, Quantum Motion delivered the industry's first full-stack quantum computer built on standard CMOS fabrication to the UK's National Quantum Computing Centre. And in a Malibu cleanroom owned jointly by Boeing and General Motors, HRL Laboratories continued refining the encoded spin qubit approach it had pioneered in silicon-germanium heterostructures, publishing two-dimensional qubit arrays with multilevel interconnects. Something had shifted. For years, silicon spin qubits occupied a peculiar position in the quantum computing landscape: universally acknowledged as the most scalable approach in theory, yet perpetually dismissed as the most immature in practice. Superconducting qubits had Google and IBM racing past a thousand physical qubits. Trapped ions had Quantinuum demonstrating logical circuits. Neutral atoms had QuEra and PASQAL reaching thousands of qubits in reconfigurable arrays. Silicon spin had… a handful of qubits, impressive coherence times, and a promissory note. That promissory note reads: if you can make a qubit out of a transistor, you inherit six decades of semiconductor manufacturing infrastructure - the most powerful industrial machine civilization has ever built. In 2025, the first credible evidence arrived that the note might be honored. And the supply chain implications are unlike any other modality, because the silicon spin supply chain is, to a first approximation, the semiconductor supply chain - a $600 billion global industrial ecosystem already optimized for volume, yield, and relentless miniaturization. The question is no longer whether silicon can host competitive qubits. It's whether the additional ingredients this modality demands - isotopically purified silicon-28, cryogenic control electronics, and fabrication processes tuned for quantum rather than classical performance - can be produced at the scale and quality the quantum industry will require. This article maps that supply chain: from the isotopically enriched substrates to the foundry processes, from the cryogenic control chips to the dilution refrigerators (yes, silicon spin still needs cold, just not as cold), from the control electronics to the classical computing integration layer. At each point, we identify the key players, the bottlenecks, and the strategic implications for investors, technology executives, and policymakers asking: if silicon spin wins, who else wins?

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> If you are a CISO under NIS2 or DORA, you are already expected to run a risk-management system that tracks material, evolving threats...

- Published: 2026-01-06
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/nis2-dora-pqc-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Policies, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: Europe
If you are a CISO under NIS2 or DORA, you are already expected to run a risk-management system that tracks material, evolving threats - and to implement “state‑of‑the‑art” controls appropriate to the risk. The EU’s PQC roadmap is effectively saying: quantum is now one of those evolving threats you must govern. The most important conceptual shift for leadership teams is this: the EU is not (yet) mandating “deploy algorithm X by date Y” for most private entities. Instead, it is building a layered regulatory machine that makes crypto agility and cryptographic asset management auditable - and then publishing a coordinated PQC timeline that supervisors, auditors, customers, and procurement teams can point to when they ask whether your cryptography will still work in 2030–2035. How NIS2 translates quantum risk into governance, controls, and penalties NIS2’s direct “quantum” references are limited; its leverage is stronger than that: it codifies a CISO’s obligation set in a way that naturally pulls PQC into scope once public authorities define PQC as a relevant threat and publish a timeline.

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> China's Zuchongzhi 3.2 becomes the first quantum processor outside the US to achieve below-threshold error correction...

- Published: 2025-12-30
- Modified: 2026-04-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/zuchongzhi-3-2-belowthreshold/
- Categories: Research, Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
30 Dec 2026 - Exactly one year after Google's Willow became the first quantum processor to operate below the surface code threshold, China's USTC has matched the feat - and done it without the extra hardware that Google required. Researchers at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) have demonstrated quantum error correction operating below the fault-tolerance threshold on their 107-qubit Zuchongzhi 3.2 superconducting processor, making China only the second country, and USTC only the second research group, to reach this critical milestone. The results, published December 22, 2025 in Physical Review Letters as both a cover article and an Editors' Suggestion, show that the USTC team achieved a logical error suppression factor of Λ = 1.40 on a distance-7 surface code - meaning that as they increased the size of their error-correcting code, logical errors decreased rather than accumulated. This reversal is the defining signature of below-threshold operation, the point at which quantum error correction begins working as theory has long promised. The team, led by Pan Jianwei, Zhu Xiaobo, and Peng Chengzhi, with associate professor Chen Fusheng, used 97 of the processor's 107 qubits to implement a full distance-7 surface code. But the headline technical innovation is not the code distance itself. It is how they suppressed leakage errors: through an entirely new all-microwave architecture that eliminates the need for dedicated hardware-based leakage reduction.

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> Canada's visible PQC guidance - three documents published mid-2025 - is just the tip. Beneath it sits a layered enforcement framework...

- Published: 2025-12-29
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/canada-pqc-regulatory-framework/
- Categories: Quantum Policies, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: Canada
Canada's visible PQC guidance - three documents published mid-2025 - is just the tip. Beneath it sits a layered enforcement framework spanning financial regulation, critical infrastructure law, privacy obligations, and securities disclosure that collectively creates binding pressure for quantum readiness. OSFI already requires federally regulated financial institutions to maintain "strong cryptographic technologies" and has issued a direct quantum readiness bulletin. The pending CCSPA would add penalties of up to C$15 million per violation per day. And PIPEDA's technology-neutral "appropriate safeguards" standard has always evolved with emerging threats - a trajectory that inevitably leads to PQC. For CISOs in critical infrastructure sectors, the real story is not the government-only roadmap but the convergence of these instruments into a regulatory stack that rivals the EU's NIS2/DORA apparatus in practical enforcement teeth, if not yet in explicit PQC language. I should disclose a bias. I spent years working in Canada on cyber protection of critical infrastructure, and was involved with early iterations of Bill C-26 - the legislation that, after dying on the order paper and being reintroduced as Bill C-8, will likely receive Royal Assent this year. Canadians can be too nice. I sometimes wished Ottawa would show more appetite for examination and enforcement, for the kind of blunt regulatory force that others wield so comfortably. But I never once thought the agencies were incompetent. The people building Canada's cybersecurity framework - at CSE, at OSFI, at TBS - know exactly what they're doing. Which is why it frustrates me when analysts glance at ITSM.40.001, see "recommended" language and government-only scope, and pronounce Canada behind the rest of the world on quantum security. Canada doesn't regulate loudly. It doesn't put "POST-QUANTUM" in the title of its critical infrastructure law. But the teeth are there.

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> A new peer-reviewed study titled "Enterprise Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography: Timeline Analysis and Strategic Frameworks"...

- Published: 2025-12-27
- Modified: 2026-02-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/enterprise-pqc-migration-study/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
A new peer-reviewed study titled "Enterprise Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography: Timeline Analysis and Strategic Frameworks" by independent researcher Robert Campbell has been published in the open-access journal Computers (MDPI). This paper provides one of the most comprehensive analyses to date of how long it will take enterprises to fully migrate their cryptographic systems to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). The findings are striking: even under optimistic assumptions, small enterprises may need 5–7 years to complete the transition, medium enterprises 8–12 years, and large enterprises 12–15+ years. These timelines far exceed many early expectations and underscore that the PQC migration is not a simple software update but a complex, multi-year transformation. The study situates these estimates in context – tying the migration challenge to broader strategic issues like Zero Trust architecture, crypto-agility, and the looming threat of quantum-enabled adversaries – and offers a sobering call to action for organizations to start preparing now. Projected Timelines and Key Findings The paper’s headline numbers paint a clear picture of the scale of the challenge. Campbell’s analysis, which draws on expert input and historical precedents, concludes that a small enterprise (e.g. a firm with under 500 employees) will likely need on the order of 5–7 years to become fully quantum-safe. A medium enterprise (hundreds to a few thousand employees, with hybrid IT environments) might require 8–12 years, and a large enterprise (global firms with thousands of applications and extensive legacy systems) could take 12–15+ years to complete the migration. These are baseline estimates under normal conditions; the paper notes that pessimistic scenarios could stretch even longer. Such timelines are well beyond the “couple of years” optimism that some executives may have hoped for. In fact, the study explicitly argues that realistic timelines “extend well beyond initial optimistic estimates”, emphasizing that PQC migration is “not a siloed technical upgrade but a global synchronization exercise” involving many external dependencies. In other words, this isn’t just about updating an algorithm in your software stack – it’s about coordinating an entire ecosystem of hardware, software, vendors, and partner organizations in unison.

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> NIST published the final version of the Cybersecurity White Paper (CSWP) 39 – “Considerations for Achieving Crypto Agility,,,

- Published: 2025-12-21
- Modified: 2026-02-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/crypto-agility-nist/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
NIST published the final version of the Cybersecurity White Paper (CSWP) 39 – “Considerations for Achieving Crypto Agility: Strategies and Practices.” CSWP 39 elevates cryptographic agility from an oft-cited buzzword to a design imperative for both government and industry. The message is clear: organizations must be able to adapt their cryptography on the fly without breaking systems, treating agility as a foundational requirement rather than an optional enhancement. In NIST’s own words, crypto agility is now “a key practice that should be adopted at all levels, from algorithms to enterprise architectures”. This reframing transforms cryptography from a narrow technical concern into a core element of business resilience and risk management. The final NIST guidance is a policy and architecture blueprint that will reshape how cryptographic infrastructure is governed across federal agencies and the private sector. From Reactive Migration to “Planned Agility” Historically, most organizations have handled cryptographic transitions in a reactive, ad-hoc way – changing algorithms only when absolutely forced, often at great expense and risk. NIST CSWP 39 pointedly contrasts this past with a future of planned agility. One of the paper’s central themes is that crypto transitions (like the ongoing post-quantum migration) should not be treated as one-off, emergency projects, but rather anticipated as a continuous process. In fact, CSWP 39 introduces a maturity model for crypto agility, ranging from “unstructured and unplanned” practices at the low end to adaptive programs fully integrated into enterprise risk management at the high end. The goal is to climb from a world where “algorithms were hard-coded, keys scattered, and updates treated as one-time fixes” to one where agility is baked into governance. This notion of “planned agility” means building systems that are designed to change. As one industry observer summarized, “crypto agility is no longer an option, but a necessity… organizations must switch their thinking to ‘planned agility’, building systems that are designed to change as the threat landscape evolves”. NIST’s strategic plan explicitly urges executives to integrate crypto agility into corporate risk frameworks and transition plans, rather than wait for crises. In short, the paper flips agility from a reactive scramble to a proactive posture.

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> Silicon Quantum Computing demonstrates an 11-qubit atom processor linking two phosphorus donor registers with gate fidelities...

- Published: 2025-12-21
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-11-qubit-atom-processor/
- Categories: Research
21 Dec 2025 - Every scalable quantum computing architecture faces the same fundamental problem: individual qubits are small, but quantum computers are not just collections of individual qubits. They are networks. And the performance of a network depends not only on the quality of its nodes but on the quality of the connections between them. For silicon donor qubits, this problem has a specific physical form. A cluster of phosphorus atoms sharing an electron makes an excellent few-qubit register — long coherence times, high gate fidelities, native multi-qubit connectivity through the hyperfine interaction. Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC) demonstrated as much earlier this year with a four-qubit processor that ran Grover's algorithm above the fault-tolerance threshold. But a single cluster of three or four donors can only hold so many qubits. To build a larger processor, you must connect clusters — and the question is whether those inter-cluster connections can be made fast and clean enough that they don't become the system's weak link. SQC has now answered that question. Published in Nature, the team's 11-qubit atom processor links two precision-placed phosphorus donor registers — a four-atom cluster and a five-atom cluster, engineered 13 nanometres apart — through electron exchange interaction. The result is a fully controlled processor where every gate, single- and multi-qubit, local and non-local, achieves fidelities ranging from 99.1% to 99.9%. The two-qubit gate fidelity of 99.9% is itself a record for silicon qubits. This is the largest silicon donor processor ever demonstrated. And it is the first to show that connecting registers does not degrade performance — it can actually improve it. The Architecture The processor comprises two nuclear spin registers: a 4P register (four phosphorus atoms hosting nuclear spins n1–n4 and a shared electron e1) and a 5P register (five phosphorus atoms hosting n5–n9 and a shared electron e2). The two clusters were positioned 13 nm apart using SQC's scanning tunnelling microscopy hydrogen lithography — the same atomic-precision fabrication technique that distinguishes the donor approach from gate-defined quantum dot architectures.

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> Rydberg atom sensors detect electromagnetic fields from DC to terahertz without antennas...

- Published: 2025-12-19
- Modified: 2026-04-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/rydberg-atom-sensors-china-kewei/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing
- Tags: China
In April 2024, a startup nobody outside Beijing's quantum corridor had heard of quietly incorporated in Zhongguancun. Kewei Quantum (spun out of the Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences) completed its first funding round within months of founding and began marketing two product lines: atomic clocks and Rydberg atom electromagnetic detection systems. That second product line deserves attention far beyond what it has received. Rydberg atom sensors represent a genuinely different kind of quantum sensing technology — one that doesn't improve on existing instruments by increments but operates on fundamentally different physics. They detect electromagnetic fields without antennas, across a frequency range spanning from near-DC to terahertz, with inherent self-calibration traceable to atomic constants. Nothing in classical electronics does this. And both the United States and China are racing to militarize them. What Makes Rydberg Sensors Different From Everything Else To understand why Rydberg sensors matter, you need to understand what a Rydberg atom actually is, and why its properties are so exotic. A Rydberg atom is an atom in which a single electron has been excited to an extraordinarily high energy level — a principal quantum number (n) of roughly 50 to 100 or more. At these excitation levels, the outer electron orbits approximately 10,000 times further from the nucleus than in a ground-state atom. The result is an atom with a physical size measured in micrometers — thousands of times larger than a normal atom — and an electric dipole moment that scales as n², making it staggeringly sensitive to external electric fields.

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> China's fully domestically produced Tianyan-287 quantum computer goes commercial, completing 1M random circuit samples in 18.4 minutes...

- Published: 2025-12-18
- Modified: 2026-04-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/tianyan-287/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
18 Dec 2025 - China Telecom Quantum Group (CTQG) and QuantumCTek have deployed the Tianyan-287, a fully domestically produced 105-qubit superconducting quantum computer, for commercial cloud access on the Tianyan quantum computing platform. The system uses the same chip architecture as USTC's Zuchongzhi 3.0 - the processor that set the world record for quantum computational advantage in superconducting systems in March 2025. The system's benchmark numbers tell the story: in a random circuit sampling task using 74 qubits over 24 cycles, the Tianyan-287 generates one million samples in 18.4 minutes. The same calculation would take state-of-the-art classical supercomputers approximately 16,000 years to complete. This makes the Tianyan platform the first quantum computing cloud service outside the United States to offer quantum-advantage-class performance. The announcement, made in late November 2025 with an accompanying arXiv paper published December 11, represents something that has not happened before in quantum computing: a laboratory research prototype demonstrating quantum advantage was re-engineered into a commercial system and deployed for public access within the same calendar year.

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> The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) and the Eurosystem published the results of Project Leap Phase 2, a massive technical trial testing...

- Published: 2025-12-13
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/bis-leap-2-pqc-payments/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) and the Eurosystem published the results of Project Leap Phase 2, a massive technical trial testing PQC on the TARGET2 payment system (the Real-Time Gross Settlement system for the Euro). The project involved the Banque de France, Deutsche Bundesbank, the Bank of Italy, and Swift. The headline finding was a success: the consortium proved they could functionally send PQC-signed liquidity transfers between central banks. However, the technical details buried in the report are important. The report explicitly states that "Post-quantum signature verification took meaningfully longer than traditional RSA-based verification" and that the system suffered from packet size issues that required substantial redevelopment. Technical Deep Dive: The Physics of Latency Project Leap tested the "Hybrid" approach - running PQC and RSA side-by-side to ensure backward compatibility and defense-in-depth. They found that legacy payment architectures (specifically the ESMIG connector used in TARGET2) were "ill-prepared" for the realities of hybrid cryptography.

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> An increasing number of telecom leaders have been pinging me lately about quantum readiness. And frankly, that’s exactly what they should be...

- Published: 2025-12-12
- Modified: 2025-12-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/telecom-quantum-readiness-start/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
An increasing number of telecom leaders have been pinging me lately about quantum readiness. And frankly, that’s exactly what they should be doing. New regulations and mandates are emerging left and right (in various jurisdictions and across the industry) requiring critical infrastructure to become quantum-safe in the coming years. As someone who used to run global telecom cybersecurity practices - and served as interim CISO for several telcos - I can attest that preparing a large telecom for the post-quantum era is far from a trivial “patch update.” In fact, transitioning a telco to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is an enormous, multi-year effort - likely “the largest and most complex digital transformation organization has ever undertaken”. Telcos are critical national infrastructure (arguably the most critical) and also among the most complex IT/network environments out there. Every element of modern telecom networks - from the 5G radio access and core, to IMS systems, to countless OSS/BSS applications - is woven with cryptography. Replacing or upgrading all those algorithms is a marathon, not a sprint. By now every telco should be well underway with a quantum readiness program. If you haven’t started, the second-best time is now. The quantum threat isn’t science fiction or “next generation” hype; it’s a tangible risk within the strategic planning horizon (many experts project powerful quantum computers by the 2030s). The good news is that the readiness is still achievable on time if you approach it in a disciplined and comprehensive way.

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> Dutch startup QuantWare has announced VIO-40K™, a new 3D packaging architecture designed to build superconducting quantum processors...

- Published: 2025-12-10
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/quantware-10000qubit/
- Categories: Systems & Engineering, Industry, Policy & Sovereignty
Dutch startup QuantWare has announced VIO-40K™, a new 3D packaging architecture designed to build superconducting quantum processors with up to 10,000 qubits on a single device. This represents roughly a 100× increase over the scale of today’s largest superconducting chips. The VIO-40K approach uses a stack of chiplets - multiple layers of quantum chips and interposer modules - to deliver control signals vertically into the qubits, rather than spreading extensive wiring across a flat chip surface. By going vertical, QuantWare aims to bypass the “I/O bottleneck” that has constrained 2D quantum chips (where thousands of control lines would otherwise consume precious area and introduce cross-talk between qubits). According to the company, VIO-40K supports 40,000 input-output lines and uses ultra-high-fidelity chip-to-chip connections between the stacked chiplets. This design, they claim, provides “exponentially more compute per dollar and per watt” compared to building equivalent capacity by networking many smaller processors together. In essence, VIO-40K is a blueprint for a KiloQubit-scale quantum processor implemented as a single integrated unit, addressing key scaling pain points like cryogenic wiring density and control electronics in the fridge. In tandem with the VIO-40K architecture, QuantWare also announced it is building “KiloFab,” a dedicated quantum chip fabrication facility in Delft, the Netherlands, scheduled to open in 2026. KiloFab will be Europe’s first industrial-scale fab focused solely on quantum devices, specifically those following QuantWare’s open Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) standard. The new fab is expected to boost QuantWare’s production capacity 20× and enable the company to start shipping VIO-40K-based processors to customers by 2028. This is a strategic move to ensure that manufacturing capability keeps pace with the ambitious chip design.

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> This week, the OECD published An overview of national strategies and policies for quantum technologies as OECD Digital Economy Papers No. 379

- Published: 2025-12-10
- Modified: 2026-03-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/oecd-quantum-national-strategies/
- Categories: Industry
This week, the OECD published An overview of national strategies and policies for quantum technologies as OECD Digital Economy Papers No. 379, with the publication page dating it to 8 December 2025. The OECD frames it as a stocktake of the national strategies and policy instruments countries are using to support quantum technologies. That description is accurate, but it undersells the paper. In practice, this is one of the clearest snapshots yet of how governments are trying to turn quantum from a scientific frontier into a governed strategic sector. The OECD publication page attributes the paper to the organisation itself, while the PDF credits Andrés Barreneche, Maxime Benallaoua and Daniela Valenzuela, under the guidance of Alistair Nolan and Elizabeth Thomas-Raynaud. The PDF also says the paper was approved and declassified by written procedure by the Digital Policy Committee and the Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy on 27 November 2025. The topline findings are substantial. The report says that, by November 2025, 18 OECD member countries plus the European Union had adopted dedicated quantum strategies. It cites an estimate that governments worldwide have committed USD 55.7 billion to quantum science and technology since 2013, though it also warns that such figures should be handled carefully because they are based on public announcements and can include legacy allocations or even non-governmental sources. And it says the OECD’s quantum policy database now captures close to 250 policies across 40 countries and the European Union. Across that policy landscape, the OECD identifies five recurring instruments: institutional funding for public research, project grants for public research, grants for business R&D, public procurement, and equity financing.

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> EU has entered the global quantum race with determination - aiming not just to excel in research, but to translate breakthroughs into economic...

- Published: 2025-12-08
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/eu-quantum-benefits/
- Categories: Quantum Policies, Quantum Commercialization, Quantum Computing
- Tags: Europe
The European Union has entered the global quantum race with determination - aiming not just to excel in research, but to translate breakthroughs into economic and strategic benefits. In July 2025, the European Commission unveiled the Quantum Europe Strategy, a roadmap to make Europe a “quantum industrial powerhouse” by 2030. This strategy acknowledges Europe’s historic strength in quantum science - from pioneers like Planck and Einstein to modern Nobel laureates like Zeilinger and Aspect - and notes that Europe today boasts the world’s largest pool of quantum researchers and startups. Yet European leaders also recognize a persistent gap: the EU has been “lagging behind in translating its innovation capabilities… into real market opportunities”. Over €11 billion in public funds have been invested in European quantum R&D in the past five years (via programs like the Quantum Flagship), but Europe still trails global competitors in patent output and in scaling startups to world-class companies. The Quantum Europe Strategy directly targets these shortcomings, centering on five pillars: advancing research “from lab to fab to market,” building cutting-edge quantum infrastructures (computers, communication networks, sensors), strengthening the startup ecosystem (from startups to scale-ups), developing space and defense-oriented quantum applications, and cultivating quantum skills across Europe. In short, the EU’s message is clear - Europe intends not only to lead in discovering quantum technologies, but also in deploying them for societal and economic gain.

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> Quantum computers need more than qubits. The enabling technologies — control electronics, cryogenics, error correction hardware, and materials

- Published: 2025-12-04
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/quantum-infrastructure-technologies/
- Categories: Quantum Ecosystem
Quantum computing captivates with its physics: superposition, entanglement, interference. The companies that build qubits get the headlines, the funding rounds, and the breathless media coverage. But the companies that build the infrastructure beneath the qubits - the electronics that control them, the refrigerators that cool them, the decoders that correct their errors, the materials that make all of it possible - hold a disproportionate influence over which quantum computers actually work, which ones scale, and which ones remain laboratory curiosities. The most important company in quantum computing may not be building a quantum computer at all. It may be building a decoder chip in Cambridge, a dilution refrigerator in Helsinki, a control stack in Delft, or enriching silicon isotopes in Pretoria. The infrastructure beneath the qubit is the infrastructure that will determine whether the quantum revolution actually happens - and who profits when it does.

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> Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) - a method of securing communications using quantum physics - has become a flashpoint...

- Published: 2025-12-03
- Modified: 2025-12-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qkd-countries-differ/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Networks
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) - a method of securing communications using quantum physics - has become a flashpoint of debate worldwide. Recent news (like Google’s announcement favoring post-quantum algorithms over QKD) highlights how divided opinions are. Some nations are investing heavily in QKD networks as the next frontier of secure communications, while others remain skeptical and prioritize post-quantum cryptography (PQC). United States and Allies: Emphasizing PQC Over QKD In the U.S. and allies like the UK the official stance has been to downplay QKD and focus on PQC. U.S. security agencies argue that QKD is impractical for most real-world uses and that robust cryptographic algorithms (PQC) are a better solution. The U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) explicitly “does not support the usage of QKD” for protecting national security communications. Instead, NSA and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have put their weight behind standardizing PQC algorithms that can run on today’s classical networks. This approach treats the quantum threat as something to be solved with new math (PQC) rather than new physics.

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> Sparrow Quantum, a spin-out from the Niels Bohr Institute, has closed a €27.5 million (~$32 million) Series A round...

- Published: 2025-12-02
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/sparrow-quantum-32m/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Denmark
Sparrow Quantum, a spin-out from the Niels Bohr Institute, has closed a €27.5 million (~$32 million) Series A round - the largest quantum-tech investment in the Nordic region to date. The funding, led by North Ventures and the European Investment Bank’s venture arm, will bankroll scaling up Sparrow’s production of deterministic single-photon chips and support global expansion. Sparrow’s core innovation, the Sparrow Core photonic chip, can emit identical single photons on demand, a crucial capability for optical quantum computers and quantum communication systems. Unlike superconducting qubits that require near-zero temperatures, Sparrow’s photonic approach operates at room temperature and is highly resistant to noise, making it attractive for practical deployment. The infusion of capital will help the company transition from prototype to mass manufacturing of its photon-source chips. “Our focus now is on scaling and making the technology widely available,” said Founder Peter Lodahl, noting the Sparrow Core is already being evaluated by several European tech firms. By improving yield and integration, Sparrow aims to supply the “laser shoeboxes” that could enable scalable photonic quantum processors and quantum cryptography networks. The investment is also a strategic win for Europe’s quantum ecosystem. It strengthens Denmark and the EU’s position in the global quantum race, leveraging local scientific breakthroughs to build an industrial edge in photonics. The involvement of European funds signals policymakers’ support for homegrown hardware capabilities to complement the software and applications focus of many EU quantum startups.

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> When will Q-Day arrive? Frameworks, forecasts, and tools for predicting when quantum computers will break crypto and why the clock is ticking

- Published: 2025-12-02
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day-prediction/q-day-predicting/
- Categories: Q-Day Prediction
When will a quantum computer break RSA and ECC? Expert predictions range from "already happened in a classified lab" to "never" — and the honest truth is that nobody knows. Q-Day prediction is hard because it depends on simultaneous breakthroughs across multiple domains: qubit quality, error correction, algorithmic efficiency, control systems, and classical infrastructure. Progress must converge across all of them before a cryptographically relevant quantum computer becomes operational. This Deep Dive series brings rigor and intellectual honesty to a topic that generates more heat than light. It covers three layers: what Q-Day actually is and why it matters (including why it's a confidence crisis, not an outage), how to think about predicting it using the CRQC Readiness Benchmark framework (three metrics: Logical Qubit Capacity, Logical Operations Budget, and Quantum Operations Throughput) rather than expert guesses, and why — paradoxically — the exact date may matter less than you think, because regulators, insurers, investors, and clients have already set deadlines that are closer and more certain than any quantum timeline.

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> D-Wave Quantum Inc. has launched a dedicated business unit to accelerate quantum adoption across U.S. government agencies.

- Published: 2025-12-02
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-gov-unit/
- Categories: Industry
D-Wave Quantum Inc. has launched a dedicated business unit to accelerate quantum adoption across U.S. government agencies. Led by newly appointed VP Jack Sears Jr., a defense contracting veteran, the unit will focus on logistics, transportation, and national security applications in response to growing federal interest in quantum solutions. D-Wave’s CEO Alan Baratz says the “call to use quantum technologies to address our nation’s interests is increasing” amid complex challenges requiring more powerful problem-solving resources This move underscores the government’s push to harness quantum computing for practical impact. D-Wave, known as the first commercial quantum computing provider, uniquely develops both quantum annealing systems for optimization and gate-model quantum processors for general computing. By offering annealing (useful for complex scheduling and routing problems) alongside gate-based machines, D-Wave aims to meet diverse federal needs from improving military logistics to enhancing cybersecurity. The company recently deployed its latest Advantage2 quantum annealer at a defense contractor’s facility in Alabama to support sensitive government projects.

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> A new paper in Nature Photonics by Natalia Herrera Valencia et al. (2025) reports a prototype quantum network that connects two previously...

- Published: 2025-12-01
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/linking-two-quantum-networks/
- Categories: Research
A new paper in Nature Photonics by Natalia Herrera Valencia et al. (2025) reports a prototype quantum network that connects two previously separate networks into a single eight-user system. In practical terms, the team from Heriot-Watt University demonstrated a reconfigurable quantum photonic network that can route entanglement to different users on demand and even “teleport” entanglement across network boundaries. This achievement marks the first time two distinct quantum networks have been linked together, allowing one network to effectively talk to the other. It sets a new benchmark for the scale, versatility, and performance of quantum networks envisioned as the backbone of a future “quantum internet”. At the heart of the demonstration is not an expensive quantum chip, but an off-the-shelf multimode optical fiber costing under £100. The researchers turned the inherent complexity of light in a multimode fiber into an advantage. Light scattering inside the fiber’s hundreds of internal pathways is usually random and chaotic, but by carefully shaping the light input with programmable optics, the team “effectively programmed the fiber,” transforming its messy internal scattering into a high-dimensional optical circuit.

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> In an era of quantum and digital sovereignty, governments and companies must ensure they aren’t caught off-guard by geopolitical tech disruptions.

- Published: 2025-11-27
- Modified: 2026-02-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/sovereignty-stress-test-tabletop/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
In an era of quantum and digital sovereignty, governments and companies must ensure they aren’t caught off-guard by geopolitical tech disruptions. Building on my previous analyses of quantum sovereignty and a number of Applied Quantum client engagements, I wanted to offer a practical scenario toolkit to “stress test” sovereignty. Instead of chasing total self-sufficiency, the goal is sovereign optionality - staying integrated in global tech ecosystems while maintaining the ability to pivot or swap dependencies if geopolitics turn hostile. By simulating extreme but plausible scenarios, policymakers and enterprise leaders can identify vulnerabilities and bolster resilience before a real crisis hits. Each scenario below includes leading indicators (early warning signs), failure modes (how things could break down), and optionality mitigations (strategies to preserve flexibility and control). These tabletop exercises can inform national policy (e.g. investment in local capacity, new alliances) as well as corporate strategy (e.g. supplier diversification, crypto-agile architectures), ensuring that no single foreign actor can dictate your technological fate.

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> If SBOM is the ingredients list for software, CBOM is the ingredients list for the security assumptions...

- Published: 2025-11-26
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/rethinking-cbom/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
The simplest way to explain CBOM is still the best. If SBOM is the ingredients list for software, CBOM is the ingredients list for the security assumptions that software depends on. Where SBOM tracks components and dependencies, CBOM tracks cryptographic assets - algorithms, protocols, certificates, keys, and related material - and the relationships that turn "implemented somewhere" into "actually used here." This is not happening in a vacuum. OWASP CycloneDX has been a major force in formalizing CBOM as part of a broader "xBOM" ecosystem. CBOM was formally introduced in CycloneDX v1.6, released in April 2024, developed originally by IBM Research and integrated upstream. CycloneDX itself was ratified as ECMA-424 at the 127th Ecma General Assembly in Geneva in June 2024 - which matters if you want CBOM to be more than a boutique format. CycloneDX v1.7, released in October 2025, expanded CBOM support further with a Cryptography Registry that provides standardized naming patterns for algorithm families, addressing the inconsistencies in how different tools and organizations classify cryptographic primitives. The CycloneDX CBOM guidance is blunt about why this needs to be machine-readable: cryptography is buried deep inside components, and the only scalable way to manage it is to represent it in a structured object model that tools can reason over. In practice, that is the dividing line between "a slide deck about crypto" and "an engineering artifact that can drive migration, audits, procurement requirements, and policy enforcement."

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> The White House has launched the Genesis Mission, an ambitious Department of Energy initiative to integrate America’s...

- Published: 2025-11-25
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/white-house-genesis/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United States
The White House has launched the Genesis Mission, an ambitious Department of Energy initiative to integrate America’s top supercomputers, AI systems, quantum computers, and scientific instruments into a unified "discovery platform". Announced via Executive Order by President Trump, the mission’s goal is to double U.S. scientific research productivity within a decade by creating an unprecedented computational network. Under Secretary for Science Dr. Darío Gil (formerly of IBM Research) will lead the effort, mobilizing all 17 DOE national labs along with industry and academia. The integrated platform will essentially function as America’s most complex scientific instrument ever built, linking exascale supercomputers, next-gen quantum processors, massive AI models, and real-time experimental data sources across the country. Officials say this “AI-quantum super-network” will target grand challenges in three areas: energy dominance (e.g. accelerating fusion energy and grid modernization), scientific discovery (leveraging quantum simulations for new materials and fundamental physics), and national security (AI-driven stewardship of nuclear stockpiles and novel defense technologies). By breaking down silos between computing resources, Genesis aims to enable closed-loop R&D cycles – for instance, AI systems could steer experiments at telescopes or particle colliders in real time, while quantum computers tackle sub-problems that are intractable for classical machines. DOE Secretary Chris Wright likened the mission’s scale to historic endeavors like the Manhattan Project and Apollo program, calling it a "defining moment for the next era of American science".

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> Investor confidence in quantum technology is reaching new heights, as evidenced by London-based Firgun Ventures announcing a $70 million...

- Published: 2025-11-24
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/firgun-70m-quantum/
- Categories: Industry
Investor confidence in quantum technology is reaching new heights, as evidenced by London-based Firgun Ventures announcing a $70 million first close of its new quantum-focused venture fund. Firgun’s fund, which is backed by Qatar’s sovereign wealth fund (Qatar Investment Authority) as an anchor LP, is targeting a total of $250 million to invest in early growth-stage quantum startups globally. The initial $70M tranche will kickstart deployments into companies spanning quantum computing hardware and software, quantum communications (like QKD networks), and quantum sensing applications, among others. Firgun Ventures, founded by a team blending scientific and finance backgrounds, is billing itself as one of the first VC firms dedicated solely to “post-seed, pre-expansion” quantum tech companies – essentially aiming to fill the Series A/B funding gap for startups that have proven prototypes and now need to scale. The firm’s leadership includes Dr. Kris Naudts and Zeynep Koruturk, who bring experience in academia, entrepreneurship, and big tech investing, supported by an advisory council of quantum experts from Cambridge, Oxford, MIT, Google and others. Their thesis is that quantum technology is at an inflection point moving “from theory to real-world impact”, and thus poised for significant growth – with Firgun positioning to nurture the standout players of this emerging industry.

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> A memo from The Pentagon CIO dated Nov. 18, 2025 (cleared for open publication Nov. 20) forces a shift from ad‑hoc PQC pilots to a controlled...

- Published: 2025-11-22
- Modified: 2026-03-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/pentagon-cio-dow-dod-memo-pqc/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
A memo from The Pentagon CIO dated Nov. 18, 2025 (cleared for open publication Nov. 20) forces a shift from ad‑hoc PQC pilots to a controlled, enterprise migration program. It orders an all-systems cryptography inventory, requires Components to name PQC migration leads, makes PQC testing and acquisition subject to CIO intake/deployment approvals, and draws bright lines - most notably, it bars quantum key distribution (QKD) for confidentiality, authenticity, or integrity and sets Dec. 31, 2030 as the key retire-by date for PSK-based and symmetric “quantum resistance” approaches. What happened and why the timing matters The memo is published via the DoD Chief Information Officer public document library and signed by Katherine Arrington in a “performing the duties” CIO role. The document’s letterhead uses “Department of War” and the abbreviation “DoW,” but it is positioned as Pentagon-wide guidance. The timing is not accidental. Office of Management and Budget’s M‑23‑02 (Nov. 2022) pushed federal agencies to inventory cryptography (for civilian, non‑NSS systems) and estimate the funding needed for PQC migration. Meanwhile NIST has published core PQC standards - FIPS 203/204/205 (Aug. 2024): ML‑KEM for key establishment and ML‑DSA/SLH‑DSA for digital signatures.

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> Researchers at Forschungszentrum Jülich have fully simulated a universal 50-qubit quantum computer using Europe’s first exascale supercomputer

- Published: 2025-11-22
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/julich-50-qubit/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Germany
Researchers at Forschungszentrum Jülich have fully simulated a universal 50-qubit quantum computer using Europe’s first exascale supercomputer, JUPITER. This achievement, requiring on the order of 2 petabytes of memory, breaks the previous simulation record of 48 qubits set in 2019 and provides a powerful new testbed for quantum algorithms. It marks a milestone intertwining high-performance computing (HPC) with quantum research, showing how advances in exascale systems can push quantum experimentation beyond current hardware limitations. How was this made possible? The JUPITER supercomputer is powered by NVIDIA’s GH200 “Grace Hopper” Superchips, which tightly integrate CPUs and GPUs with unified memory access. By enhancing the Jülich Universal Quantum Computer Simulator (JUQCS) to exploit this hybrid memory, the team could offload data to CPU memory when it exceeded GPU memory limits with minimal performance loss. They also implemented an on-the-fly compression technique that reduced memory needs eightfold, and a dynamic algorithm to efficiently synchronize computations across more than 16,000 GH200 nodes. These innovations allowed the simulation to handle the staggering $2^{50}$ complex amplitudes (over 2 quadrillion values) that describe a 50-qubit state.

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> U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission says: America should adopt a “Quantum First” national goal by 2030

- Published: 2025-11-21
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/us-quantum-first-report/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: United States
In a bid to secure the technological high ground, the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission - a bipartisan federal advisory panel - has issued a bold recommendation: America should adopt a “Quantum First” national goal by 2030, arguing that the U.S. must secure early advantage in quantum computing, quantum communications and post-quantum security before rival powers can use the technology against U.S. interests. This call, part of the Commission’s just-released 2025 Annual Report to Congress, centers on achieving quantum computational advantage in three mission-critical domains - cryptography, drug discovery, and materials science - by the end of the decade. In practical terms, the Commission warns that whoever leads in quantum (and AI) will “control the encryption of the digital economy; enable breakthroughs in materials, energy, and medicine; and gain asymmetric and likely persistent advantage in intelligence and targeting”. The stakes, in other words, are nothing short of future economic and national security dominance.

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> IBM and Cisco’s joint announcement this week is easy to misread as another “quantum + internet” headline. It isn’t.

- Published: 2025-11-21
- Modified: 2025-11-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-cisco-network-ftqc/
- Categories: Industry
IBM and Cisco’s joint announcement this week is easy to misread as another “quantum + internet” headline. It isn’t. The two companies are laying out a step‑by‑step program to turn stand‑alone fault‑tolerant machines into a fabric: first a proof‑of‑concept linking multiple fault‑tolerant computers within five years, then a broader, distributed network in the early 2030s, and - if the physics and engineering behave - a fledgling “quantum computing internet” toward the late 2030s. That’s more than ambition; it’s a system architecture with timelines, components, and explicit research gaps. IBM’s own blog frames the idea in one sentence I think is spot‑on: “Fault‑tolerant quantum computing may be our present goal, but it’s just part of the IBM vision for the future of computing.” The company sketches a progression that will feel familiar to anyone who watched mainframes give way to clusters and, eventually, the internet: first you get a credible single fault‑tolerant system (IBM’s Starling program), then you cable modules together across short distances inside a data center, and finally you extend the links across buildings and metros. At each step, the point isn’t just more qubits; it’s connected qubits.

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> The Open Compute Project (OCP) has launched a new workstream to prepare conventional data centers for co-locating quantum computers...

- Published: 2025-11-21
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ocp-quantum-computers/
- Categories: Industry
The Open Compute Project (OCP) has launched a new workstream to prepare conventional data centers for co-locating quantum computers alongside classical HPC systems. Announced at OCP’s Global Summit, this initiative will develop open specifications, best practices, and checklists to guide facility operators in accommodating quantum hardware within traditional server rooms. Drawing on lessons from a few early deployments (for example, IBM’s 20-qubit superconducting machine at the LRZ supercomputing center in Germany), the effort is aimed at enabling “hybrid” high-performance computing environments mixing quantum and classical resources. Why is this needed? Quantum computers – especially those based on superconducting qubits – have very different infrastructure requirements than classical servers. OCP notes that one cannot simply “walk into” a datacenter with a quantum computer without significant prep. Key considerations include:

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> Nikesh Arora, CEO of Palo Alto Networks, has issued a stark warning that hostile nation-states may possess CRQC by 2029

- Published: 2025-11-20
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/palo-alto-quantum-pqc/
- Categories: Industry, Quantum Security & PQC
Nikesh Arora, CEO of Palo Alto Networks, has issued a stark warning that hostile nation-states may possess cryptanalytically relevant quantum computers by 2029 – or even sooner. Speaking on the cybersecurity company’s Q1 2026 earnings call, Arora predicted that within about four years, quantum technology could advance enough for adversaries to break current encryption, which "at which point most security appliances will need to be replaced". This pronouncement, while forward-looking, grabbed attention in the cybersecurity industry. Arora acknowledged a degree of “quantum FUD” (fear, uncertainty, doubt) around such claims. However, Arora explicitly put this prediction on the record, signaling that Palo Alto Networks is baking quantum threat preparedness into its business strategy. He stated the company will soon offer a full range of quantum-safe products, anticipating customer demand. In fact, Palo Alto’s CTO Lee Klarich commented that over the last 6–9 months, they’ve seen "a pretty significant inflection in the number of customers…starting to talk about and plan for this from an urgency perspective."

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> Three quantum technology companies – QuantWare, Q-CTRL, and Qblox - jointly unveiled a new offering called the Quantum Utility Block (QUB)...

- Published: 2025-11-19
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-utility-block-announced/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
Three quantum technology companies – QuantWare, Q-CTRL, and Qblox - jointly unveiled a new offering called the Quantum Utility Block (QUB), billing it as “the fastest path to quantum utility” for enterprises and research institutions. This announcement, made in Delft, Netherlands, signals a novel approach to deploying quantum computers: instead of relying on proprietary one-vendor systems or costly in-house development, organizations can now obtain a pre-validated, modular quantum computer architecture that is delivered as a full-stack package. The QUB comes in Small (5 qubits), Medium (17 qubits), and Large (41 qubits) configurations, and it integrates components from all three partners – QuantWare’s quantum processors, Qblox’s control electronics, and Q-CTRL’s software – into a turnkey system. The goal is to dramatically simplify on-premises quantum computing for those who want their own quantum hardware, offering “an accessible, cost-effective way to procure quantum systems” without the usual hassle. A Modular Quantum Platform, Ready Out-of-the-Box The Quantum Utility Block is essentially a reference architecture for a superconducting quantum computer that has been pre-validated and pre-integrated by the three specialist firms. In practical terms, this means an organization can order a QUB system and receive a fully assembled quantum machine with all the pieces working together – the qubit chip (from QuantWare), the control hardware (from Qblox), and the calibration and error suppression software (from Q-CTRL) – already tested as one unit.

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> Microsoft has announced the general availability of NIST’s post-quantum cryptography (PQC) algorithms in core Windows and .NET platforms

- Published: 2025-11-18
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsoft-pqc-windows/
- Categories: Industry, Quantum Security & PQC
Microsoft has announced the general availability of NIST’s post-quantum cryptography (PQC) algorithms in core Windows and .NET platforms. As of the November 2025 update, Windows 11 and Windows Server 2025 now include built-in support for the CRYSTALS-Kyber key encapsulation mechanism and CRYSTALS-Dilithium digital signature algorithm (under their NIST standardized names ML-KEM and ML-DSA). In parallel, Microsoft’s new .NET 10 framework incorporates these quantum-resistant algorithms in its cryptographic libraries. This marks one of the most significant real-world deployments of PQC to date, instantly bringing quantum-safe encryption capabilities to a huge install base of systems and developers. What exactly changed? Microsoft integrated Kyber and Dilithium into the Windows Cryptography API: Next Generation (CNG) and the certificate API layer. Practically, this means Windows now supports PQC for common operations like TLS handshakes, code signing, VPN encryption, and client authentication. For example, a Windows server can negotiate a TLS session using a hybrid X25519+Kyber key exchange (the post-quantum component foils any future quantum attack on the key) and use Dilithium instead of RSA for a digital signature. These algorithms were selected by NIST in 2022 and are on track to be FIPS-certified soon, so Microsoft is slightly ahead of the curve in rolling them out broadly.

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> In a breakthrough for quantum communication, a research team led by Tim Strobel has demonstrated quantum teleportation between two remote

- Published: 2025-11-18
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/photonic-quantum-teleportation-telecom/
- Categories: Industry
In a breakthrough for quantum communication, a research team led by Tim Strobel has demonstrated quantum teleportation between two remote quantum dot systems at standard fiber-optic (1550 nm) telecommunications wavelengthsquantumzeitgeist.com. The experiment, published in Nature Communications on Nov 17, is the first full-photonic quantum teleportation using distinct solid-state photon sources. In simpler terms, the researchers transferred the quantum state of a photon from one quantum dot to another, without the two ever directly interacting, by leveraging entanglement and a Bell-state measurement. Why is this significant? Quantum teleportation is a fundamental building block for quantum networks and a future “quantum internet.” It allows quantum information (qubits) to be sent between distant nodes instantly (in practice, via previously shared entanglement and classical communication) without the qubit traveling through the intervening space. Teleportation has been done before in various forms, but usually between photons from the same source or in lab setups not compatible with real-world telecom infrastructure. Here, telecom-wavelength photons from two different semiconductor quantum dots – essentially tiny “artificial atoms” on chips – were made to interfere and achieve teleportation with high fidelity. This bridges a big gap between quantum communication research and practical deployment over today’s fiber networks.

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> United States’ first Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) quantum computing system, to be hosted in Colorado. In a collaborative effort...

- Published: 2025-11-17
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/qoa-news/elevate-quantum-qoa/
- Categories: Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
Elevate Quantum and an international team of partners have announced the deployment of the United States’ first Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) quantum computing system, to be hosted in Colorado. In a collaborative effort involving Dutch quantum processor maker QuantWare, control electronics specialist Qblox, quantum software firm Q-CTRL, and Colorado-based cryogenics startup Maybell Quantum, the group is establishing a modular quantum computer with both on-premises and cloud Quantum-as-a-Service (QaaS) access. The modular, commercially reproducible system - called the Quantum Platform for the Advancement of Commercialization (Q-PAC) - is designed to accelerate quantum adoption and commercialization, enable cross-platform interoperability, and serve as a national resource for companies, national labs, academic researchers, and students. This marks the first deployment of a QOA-based quantum system on U.S. soil, strategically located at Elevate Quantum’s Quantum Commons campus in Colorado. The Q-PAC system will be hosted at Elevate Quantum’s Commercialization Lab on Colorado’s new Quantum Commons tech campus, providing users integrated access to a full, modular quantum computing stack – from the quantum processing unit (QPU) and control electronics to cryogenic infrastructure and advanced software layers. Users will be able to tap into the machine either via the cloud (as a QaaS offering) or directly on-premises. According to Elevate Quantum, this initiative represents “a major step toward strengthening U.S. leadership in quantum systems integration and workforce development”. State officials also lauded the project’s significance. “The Q-PAC system is a significant step for Colorado’s economic future, solidifying our state’s leadership in the quantum industry while advancing national collaboration and quantum development,” said Eve Lieberman, Executive Director of the Colorado Office of Economic Development, adding that it will “attract new investment, generate high-skill jobs across Colorado and the Mountain West, and accelerate the commercialization of cutting-edge technology, all through unprecedented public-private collaboration”.

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> Neutral-atom quantum computers run on lasers, vacuum chambers, and off-the-shelf atoms — no exotic materials, no millikelvin temperatures.

- Published: 2025-11-17
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/neutral-atom-quantum-ecosystem/
- Categories: Quantum Ecosystem
In 2025, a team at Harvard, MIT, and QuEra did something that no quantum computing platform had done before: they ran a 3,000-qubit atom array continuously for over two hours, replenishing lost atoms mid-computation - effectively building the first quantum computer that could operate without stopping to reload. In a separate result published in Nature, the same constellation of researchers demonstrated below-threshold quantum error correction with up to 96 logical qubits, proving that adding more neutral-atom qubits actually reduces logical error rates — the defining requirement for fault-tolerant quantum computing. A year earlier, the modality had barely registered in most investor portfolios. Superconducting qubits had Google and IBM. Trapped ions had Quantinuum and IonQ. Photonics had PsiQuantum's billion-dollar war chest. Neutral atoms were the academic curiosity - beautiful physics, impressive coherence times, but commercially unproven and seemingly years behind. Then 2025 happened. QuEra closed $230 million from Google, SoftBank, and NVentures. PASQAL deployed seven quantum computers to HPC centers across Europe, Saudi Arabia, and Canada - and in March 2026, announced a $2 billion SPAC merger to list on Nasdaq. Infleqtion became the first neutral-atom quantum company to go public, raising over $550 million. Atom Computing partnered with Microsoft to deliver a system with 24 entangled logical qubits - the largest such demonstration on any platform. planqc secured €50 million and an €87 million pipeline of government contracts in Germany. And Infleqtion's 6,100-qubit atom array, published in Nature, demonstrated the raw scaling potential that had only been theoretical. The neutral-atom modality didn't just catch up. It emerged as 2025's most surprising frontrunner in the fault-tolerance race, and the supply chain behind it - built on lasers, vacuum chambers, spatial light modulators, and commodity alkali metals - looks nothing like any of its competitors'. If you've read our analyses of the superconducting, trapped-ion, and photonic quantum computing supply chains, you know that each modality draws from a distinct industrial ecosystem: cryogenics and microwave electronics for superconducting, precision ion traps and semiconductor fabs for trapped ions, silicon photonics foundries and single-photon detectors for photonics. The neutral-atom supply chain shares significant overlap with trapped ions - both need lasers, both need vacuum systems, both manipulate individual atoms - but differs fundamentally in what it doesn't need. No ion trap chips fabricated at Infineon. No millikelvin dilution refrigerators from Bluefors. No exotic helium-3 isotopes mined from nuclear weapons programs. The atoms themselves - rubidium, cesium, strontium - are available from any chemical supplier for a few hundred dollars a gram. This creates a paradox. The neutral-atom supply chain is simultaneously the most accessible (built largely from commercial photonics and vacuum components) and the most bottlenecked (dominated by a handful of specialist laser and optical component companies whose products are essential and whose capacity is limited). Understanding which it is - and where the critical pinch points actually lie - is essential for anyone evaluating the modality's prospects. This article maps the neutral-atom quantum computing supply chain from the atom itself to the cloud endpoint: the lasers that cool and trap and entangle, the optical systems that arrange thousands of qubits into programmable arrays, the vacuum chambers that protect them, the control electronics that orchestrate the computation, and the scaling architectures that promise millions of qubits through networked modules. At each layer, we identify the key players, the bottlenecks, and the strategic implications for investors, technology executives, and policymakers asking: if neutral atoms win, who else wins?

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> When Harvard’s neutral-atom team quietly dropped their new paper on a fault-tolerant architecture for universal quantum computation...

- Published: 2025-11-16
- Modified: 2025-11-17
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/qec-below-threshold-experiments/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
When Harvard’s neutral-atom team quietly dropped their new paper on a fault-tolerant architecture for universal quantum computation, a few days ago, it felt like the field had crossed an invisible line. For years we’ve had impressive pieces of the puzzle - better qubits here, a clever code there, some elegant theory everywhere – but Lukin’s group managed to put all of the core ingredients of scalable fault-tolerant computing into a single, working neutral-atom processor. They demonstrated below-threshold surface-code style error correction, transversal logical gates, teleportation-based universality, mid-circuit qubit reuse, and constant-entropy deep circuits on a 448-atom platform. In practical terms, this isn’t “just another hardware paper”; it’s a concrete proof that a real device can behave like the textbooks say a fault-tolerant architecture should. That’s why, in my write-up, I framed Harvard’s result as more than a neutral-atom story. It’s a validation of a capability that I keep coming back to in my work: the ability to operate below the error-correction threshold, where adding more qubits to a code actually reduces the logical error rate instead of making it worse. Once a platform crosses that line, you’re no longer playing in the NISQ sandbox – you’ve entered the phase where error correction is structurally on your side, and scaling the machine pushes you toward algorithmically relevant error rates, not away from them. In my “Below-Threshold Quantum Error Correction” article, I argued that this regime is one of the most important qualitative transitions in the path to practical quantum computers. It’s not just another percentage point of gate fidelity; it’s a change in how the system scales. And in my “Path to CRQC / Predicting Q-Day” methodology, below-threshold operation is a dedicated capability axis alongside things like logical qubit capacity, logical operations budget, connectivity, decoding throughput, and stability. A platform that hasn’t yet shown below-threshold behavior is, in that framework, still fundamentally pre-CRQC, no matter how many physical qubits or how glossy the marketing.

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> Foreign investment screening, acquisition scrutiny, and “strategic capital” policies increasingly shape which quantum technology companies survive

- Published: 2025-11-15
- Modified: 2026-02-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/investment-capital-quantum-sovereignty/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty, Quantum Policies
Foreign investment screening, acquisition scrutiny, and “strategic capital” policies increasingly shape which quantum technology companies survive - and where their intellectual property (IP) and talent ultimately reside. National security and technological sovereignty narratives are no longer abstract concerns; they influence the day-to-day decisions of quantum startups. The Sovereignty Stakes in Quantum Investment Quantum technologies are widely seen as strategic, dual-use innovations at the nexus of economic competitiveness and national security. As a result, who finances and controls quantum startups has become a sovereignty concern. Governments fear that if adversarial nations gain stakes in or outright acquire domestic quantum firms, they could siphon critical know-how or capabilities abroad. Conversely, lacking domestic capital might force startups to relocate or sell to foreign buyers, again leading to an “innovation exodus” of talent and IP. The narrative of “quantum sovereignty” – ensuring a nation isn’t dependent on others for quantum tech - now permeates policy. It is reflected in export controls and investment screenings designed to guard the “crown jewels” of quantum innovation.

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> Every few months, a headline pops up proclaiming the dawn of a new quantum breakthrough - often accompanied by phrases like...

- Published: 2025-11-15
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/chinese-photonic-quantum-chip/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: China
Every few months, a headline pops up proclaiming the dawn of a new quantum breakthrough - often accompanied by phrases like “1000x faster than classical computers,” “industry first,” “quantum chip,” or “beyond classical limits.” And every time, the quantum-security community winces. Not because these technologies aren’t exciting, they often are, but because the language steadily erodes public understanding of what quantum computing actually is, and what it isn’t. The latest example arrived from China, where the Chip Hub for Integrated Photonics Xplore (CHIPX), working with start-up Turing Quantum, unveiled what the media quickly dubbed a “photonic quantum chip”. It won the “Leading Technology Award” at the 2025 World Internet Conference in Wuzhen, and several outlets reported that it offers “1,000x acceleration”, “exceeds classical limits”, and is already deployed in aerospace, biomedicine, and finance. It sounds like a genuine quantum leap. Except it isn’t a quantum computer. It’s something different and still interesting, but decidedly not what most headlines imply.

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> Technical sovereignty has become a buzzword in geopolitical and tech circles. As global alliances fray and trust in traditional partners wanes...

- Published: 2025-11-14
- Modified: 2026-02-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereign-optionality/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty, Quantum Policies
Technical sovereignty has become a buzzword in geopolitical and tech circles. As global alliances fray and trust in traditional partners wanes, countries are scrambling to assert control over critical technologies. In the quantum arena, this instinct translates into an ambitious goal: build a complete, full-stack quantum ecosystem entirely within national borders. The allure is understandable – quantum computers, sensors, and communications could be as transformational in the 21st century as semiconductors were in the 20th. No nation wants to be dependent on others for such strategic capabilities, especially when future economic and national security might hinge on them. However, pursuing quantum sovereignty – the ability to design and manufacture every layer of quantum tech domestically – is an immense challenge, bordering on the impossible for most countries. Quantum technologies comprise a complex stack of interdependent components: advanced materials and isotopes, ultra-sensitive sensors, cryogenic or laser-based hardware, control electronics, specialized software, and a rare breed of scientific talent. These critical pieces are scattered across the globe, residing in pockets of expertise in different nations. Unlike classical computing (where decades of standardization have made components like chips, memory, and software relatively modular), quantum’s nascent supply chain is bespoke and fragmented. As one World Economic Forum report noted, developing commercial quantum systems is “necessarily a global undertaking, with state-of-the-art knowledge and necessary components scattered across the world”. In other words, no single country holds all the keys.

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> Photonic Inc. is a Vancouver-based quantum computing startup pioneering a distributed, fault-tolerant quantum computer architecture...

- Published: 2025-11-13
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/photonic-inc/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Canada
Photonic Inc. is a Vancouver-based quantum computing startup pioneering a distributed, fault-tolerant quantum computer architecture built on silicon spin qubits that are optically linked by photons. In contrast to monolithic quantum processors, Photonic’s design treats networking as a native feature: qubit modules are entangled together via telecom-fiber links, effectively combining quantum computing and quantum communication into one platform. The company’s approach centers on a particular spin qubit in silicon known as the “T centre” defect, which provides a missing photonic interface to silicon qubits – enabling them to emit and receive photons at telecom wavelengths for entanglement. Photonic’s founders argue this technology unlocks the first credible path toward truly scalable and useful quantum computing in silicon, overcoming the scaling roadblocks of earlier architectures. Founded by Dr. Stephanie Simmons (a leading silicon quantum researcher at Simon Fraser University) and led by CEO Dr. Paul Terry, Photonic has quickly garnered significant support. By late 2023 the company raised $140 million USD in funding from major investors - including Microsoft and the British Columbia Investment Management Corp - to accelerate its ambitious roadmap. Microsoft in particular became both an investor and partner, aligning Photonic’s hardware with Azure’s quantum ecosystem.

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> IBM has announced two significant advances in quantum computing as part of its updated roadmap on November 12, 2025...

- Published: 2025-11-13
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-loon-nighthawk/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
IBM has announced two significant advances in quantum computing as part of its updated roadmap on November 12, 2025. At the annual Quantum Developer Conference, the company introduced IBM Quantum Nighthawk and IBM Quantum Loon – two new processors that mark major steps toward achieving practical quantum advantage by 2026 and fault-tolerant quantum computing by 2029. The first is a 120-qubit processor aimed at running more complex quantum circuits than ever before, and the second is an experimental chip designed to test the hardware building blocks of error-corrected quantum computation. IBM’s November 12 Roadmap Update: Two Chips, Two Big Shifts IBM’s latest announcements reinforce its aggressive quantum computing roadmap. Nighthawk and Loon represent two complementary thrusts in IBM’s strategy: one geared toward near-term quantum advantage on real-world problems, and the other toward long-term fault tolerance through error correction. IBM’s Jay Gambetta (IBM Research Director) emphasized that progress on all fronts – software, hardware, fabrication, and error correction – is essential to deliver truly useful quantum computing. The company is unique in tackling all these aspects in parallel, and the November 12 update showcased milestones in each.

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> Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC) is an Australian quantum hardware company based in Sydney, founded in May 2017...

- Published: 2025-11-13
- Modified: 2025-11-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/silicon-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Australia
Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC) is an Australian quantum hardware company based in Sydney, founded in May 2017 as a UNSW Sydney spin-off by Prof. Michelle Simmons (2018 Australian of the Year). It was launched as Australia’s first quantum computing company with A$83 million in seed backing from the Australian government, UNSW, Telstra, Commonwealth Bank (CBA), and others. SQC’s mission is to develop the world’s first scalable, error-corrected quantum computer using silicon-based spin qubits – specifically phosphorus atoms “placed” in silicon with atomic precision. The company operates out of UNSW’s Centre for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology (CQC²T) labs, leveraging unique infrastructure for atomically-precise device fabrication. Prof. Simmons serves as CEO, and in 2024 SQC appointed former Arm CEO Simon Segars as its new Board Chair to help steer the transition from research to commercialization. SQC today leads a world-class team of quantum physicists and engineers, and has positioned itself at the forefront of silicon quantum computing globally. History & Leadership: SQC was born from decades of UNSW research that pioneered silicon spin qubits – including the first single-atom transistor in 2012 and the first two-qubit logic gate in silicon in 2015. The company’s founding represented a public-private partnership to keep this breakthrough IP in Australia and translate it into a 10-qubit silicon quantum integrated circuit prototype by 2022. Early board members included Prof. Simmons, industry leaders from Telstra and CBA, and government representatives. Over the years, SQC has attracted top talent – notably, ex-Google quantum leader John Martinis joined as a consultant in 2020 – and forged partnerships to bolster its capabilities (e.g. a silicon-28 enrichment program with Silex for ultra-pure substrates). As of 2025, SQC’s leadership emphasizes both technical excellence and industrial strategy: Simmons (CEO) continues to drive the scientific vision, Segars (Chair) provides semiconductor industry expertise, and the board includes tech and finance veterans to guide SQC’s growth.

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> Google’s Quantum AI team has unveiled a new five-stage framework to guide the development of useful quantum computing applications.

- Published: 2025-11-13
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-framework-quantum-applications/
- Categories: Industry
Google’s Quantum AI team has unveiled a new five-stage framework to guide the development of useful quantum computing applications. Published as a perspective paper on arXiv and summarized in a Google blog post, this framework shifts focus from merely building quantum hardware to verifying real-world utility. As large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computers (FTQC) inch closer to reality , the question “What will we do with them?” looms large. Google’s framework attempts to answer this by mapping the journey from a theoretical idea to a deployed solution. It emphasizes milestones like finding hard problem instances, proving quantum advantage in practice, and engineering solutions under realistic constraints. In doing so, it provides a conceptual model of application research maturity - a roadmap not just for hardware progress, but for the algorithms and applications that will justify quantum computing’s promise.

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> In the growing spotlight on quantum technology, a new kind of opportunist is taking the stage - the contrarian con artist...

- Published: 2025-11-13
- Modified: 2025-12-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/pseudoscience-quantum-contrarianism/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
In the growing spotlight on quantum technology, a new kind of opportunist is taking the stage - the contrarian con artist. These are not the honest skeptics who ask hard questions in good faith. They are bad-faith actors cloaking themselves in “skepticism” to hijack the discourse around quantum computing and its related fields. As investment and public interest pour into quantum computing - along with the likes of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) and quantum key distribution (QKD) - these opportunists have found a niche. They loudly dismiss the entire quantum endeavor as overhyped or hopeless, not to improve the science, but to build their own brands and line their pockets. In short, they’ve discovered that in an era of excitement, being confidently negative can be a profitable con. And the damage they do - misinforming the public, sowing confusion, and undermining genuine progress - needs to be called out in no uncertain terms. Bad-Faith Skeptics Exploiting the Quantum Boom The past few years have seen quantum computing leap from obscure labs to front-page news. Governments are investing billions, startups boast of new breakthroughs, and everyone from cybersecurity chiefs to CEOs is being told quantum breakthroughs are coming. With this surge of interest, it was perhaps inevitable that contrarians would emerge claiming the whole thing is a sham. This pattern is playing out across the quantum ecosystem. In quantum computing itself, a handful of vocal personalities insist that useful quantum computers will never arrive - pronouncing the technology “always 20 years away” or even likening it to a hoax. In the realm of cryptography, buzzwords like "quantum-proof" and "post-quantum" attract both genuine innovators and snake-oil peddlers. Some boast "perfect secrecy" via exotic ciphers or one-time pads, a classic lure in crypto scams (not a new scam by any stretch). Others claim we don’t need post-quantum cryptography at all, waving away the hard work of NIST and global cryptographers with absolutist certainty. And in QKD - a legitimate quantum tech for secure key exchange - contrarian critics have not only raised technical concerns (some fair, many dated) but in extreme cases paint QKD as an outright scam, even a conspiracy. For over two decades, skeptics dismissed QKD as impractical, unscalable, "overengineered" - going so far as to label real commercial QKD systems "snake oil".

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> Quantum Motion is a London-based quantum computing company pioneering a silicon-based approach to building scalable quantum computers...

- Published: 2025-11-12
- Modified: 2025-12-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-motion/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United Kingdom
Quantum Motion is a London-based quantum computing company pioneering a silicon-based approach to building scalable quantum computers. Founded in 2017 by UCL’s Prof. John Morton and Oxford’s Prof. Simon Benjamin, the startup spun out of those universities to harness traditional CMOS semiconductor technology for quantum processors. Unlike many competitors that rely on exotic fabrication, Quantum Motion’s strategy is to use industry-standard 300 mm silicon wafers and manufacturing processes – the same foundry technology behind today’s computer chips – to create quantum bits (qubits) in silicon transistors. By leveraging ubiquitous CMOS techniques, Quantum Motion aims to mass-produce qubit arrays on chips, dramatically improving scalability and cost-effectiveness. The company’s leadership includes CEO James Palles-Dimmock, with a background in semiconductor and HPC industries, and CTO John Morton (co-founder), among others. In 2023 Quantum Motion raised a Series B round of £42 million (≈$50 million) led by Bosch and Porsche, bringing total funding to over £62 M. This capital, along with UK government grants and EU projects, has fueled a rapid expansion – the team grew from ~60 quantum engineers in early 2025 to over 100 staff across the UK, US, Australia and Spain by late 2025. Today, Quantum Motion is recognized as one of the UK’s leading quantum hardware ventures, with globally significant milestones in silicon quantum computing, including delivering the world’s first full-stack CMOS quantum computer in 2025.

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> A Harvard-led team unveiled a record-breaking neutral-atom quantum processor that for the first time integrates all core elements of scalable...

- Published: 2025-11-11
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/harvard-fault-tolerant/
- Categories: Research
A Harvard-led team unveiled a record-breaking neutral-atom quantum processor that for the first time integrates all core elements of scalable, error-corrected quantum computation into a single system. Quantum computers promise exponential processing power by encoding information in qubits – quantum bits – that can exist in superposition and become entangled. But qubits are notoriously fragile, easily losing their quantum state (a problem known as decoherence). Quantum error correction (QEC) is the decades-old dream solution: encoding logical qubits across many physical qubits so that errors can be detected and corrected on the fly. Until now, QEC remained largely theoretical or limited to small-scale demonstrations because implementing all the ingredients of a fully fault-tolerant architecture is hugely challenging. Using 448 rubidium atoms trapped in reconfigurable optical tweezers, the researchers demonstrated a universal quantum computing architecture that can detect and correct errors below the critical “fault-tolerance” threshold. In other words, adding more qubits actually reduces the logical error rate instead of increasing it. Mikhail Lukin, the project’s senior author, said “For the first time, we combined all essential elements for a scalable, error-corrected quantum computation in an integrated architecture…. These experiments – by several measures the most advanced done on any quantum platform to date – create the scientific foundation for practical large-scale quantum computation.”

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> Over the years, I’ve developed a personal toolkit - a field guide - for evaluating quantum startups and their claims. The goal is to neither be...

- Published: 2025-11-10
- Modified: 2025-11-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-due-diligence/
- Categories: Quantum Commercialization
Over the years, I’ve developed a personal toolkit - a field guide - for evaluating quantum startups and their claims. The goal is to neither be swept up by the mystique nor dismiss genuine progress. This balance is crucial: the quantum field is rife with hype, now more than ever, and companies sometimes exaggerate to secure funding. Yet real breakthroughs do happen - just on a longer timeline and with more caveats than typical tech ventures. So how can we “develop a quantum BS detector” and stay grounded in reality? It starts with understanding the basic terms (often misused), then applying a structured diligence framework. Demystifying Common Quantum Metrics (and Their Misuse) One of the first things I do in a quantum pitch meeting is clarify the jargon. Founders will throw around terms like “coherence time of 100 microseconds,” “99.99% fidelity,” “logical qubits,” “QEC,” or “quantum advantage.” These metrics can sound impressive, but they’re often misunderstood or conveniently presented without context. Let’s decode a few of the key metrics and how they can be misused:

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> Quantum computing has reached a new milestone with Quantinuum’s Helios system - a 98-qubit trapped-ion quantum computer...

- Published: 2025-11-09
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantinuums-helios-quantum-advantage/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
Quantum computing has reached a new milestone with Quantinuum’s Helios system - a 98-qubit trapped-ion quantum computer that has demonstrated beyond-classical performance on both benchmarking tests and a real-world simulation task. Helios Architecture: 98 Qubits with Record Fidelity Helios represents the third generation of Quantinuum’s quantum charge-coupled device (QCCD) trapped-ion architecture. Unlike fixed two-dimensional qubit layouts in superconducting processors, Helios uses mobile atomic qubits shuttled through a trap with a four-way “X” junction. Qubits (single barium-137 ions) can be stored in memory regions and moved into one of 8 quantum logic zones for gates. This design enables all-to-all connectivity: any pair of qubits can interact by transporting ions, rather than being limited to nearest neighbors. The use of barium ions – instead of ytterbium used in earlier H-series models – allows higher gate fidelities due to improved laser stability and cooling transitions. Helios’s control system can make real-time decisions on ion transport and gate application, orchestrating complex programs with parallel operations in different zones.

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> California is making a bid to become the epicenter of the quantum tech economy. Governor Gavin Newsom unveiled Quantum California...

- Published: 2025-11-08
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-california-initiative/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United States
California is making a bid to become the epicenter of the quantum tech economy. In early November, Governor Gavin Newsom unveiled Quantum California, a new statewide initiative to align academia, industry, and government in accelerating quantum innovation. Announced at an event at UC Berkeley, the initiative comes with initial legislation (Assembly Bill 940) and $4 million in funding to kick-start the effort. Quantum California has a broad mandate: to turn the state’s research strengths in quantum into companies, jobs, and economic leadership. California is already home to top quantum research centers (the state uniquely hosts both a National Science Foundation and a Department of Energy quantum center, at UCSB and Berkeley Lab respectively) and major corporate R&D labs like Google Quantum AI (in Santa Barbara), AWS’s Caltech center, and more. The initiative aims to leverage this by developing a comprehensive strategy - effectively a roadmap for growing California’s quantum ecosystem.

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> The United Kingdom is ramping up its quantum ambitions with a slate of new initiatives and international partnerships announced at...

- Published: 2025-11-08
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/uk-quantum-initiatives/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United Kingdom
The United Kingdom is ramping up its quantum ambitions with a slate of new initiatives and international partnerships announced at the National Quantum Technologies Showcase in London on November 7. UK officials dubbed the coming years a “Quantum Decade,” backed by fresh investments to maintain the country’s global leadership in the field. One highlight is a £14 million award for 14 industry-led projects focused on next-generation quantum sensors. These projects, funded through Innovate UK’s Quantum Sensing Mission, span applications from healthcare to transportation. For example, one aims to develop a portable quantum eye scanner to replace bulky hospital machines, another is building a quantum gravity gradiometer to map underground structures like pipes and tunnels without digging. There’s also funding for quantum navigation systems that could guide trains through the London Underground when GPS is unavailable, and quantum-enhanced blood diagnostic tools that use ultra-sensitive measurements for faster cancer screening. These diverse projects illustrate how quantum sensing - leveraging phenomena like atomic interference and entanglement for ultra-precise measurements - could impact everyday life, from reducing NHS backlogs to making trains run on time.

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> On November 6, 2025, DARPA announced the first cohort of companies that have successfully completed Stage A and are advancing to Stage B

- Published: 2025-11-08
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/darpaqbi-stage-b/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United States
On November 6, 2025, DARPA announced the first cohort of companies that have successfully completed Stage A and are advancing to Stage B of QBI. This announcement, quietly reflected on DARPA’s official QBI program webpage and subsequently picked up by the press on Nov. 7-8, 2025, marks a significant down-selection of participants as the program moves from conceptual proposals to concrete R&D planning. Stage A Recap: Earlier in 2025 (April), DARPA had selected roughly 18 companies for Stage A of QBI, representing a broad mix of quantum tech players - from giants like IBM, Google, and Honeywell/Quantinuum, to startups like Atom Computing and Oxford Ionics. About 15 of these were publicly disclosed at the time, with a few more finalized by mid-year. Over a six-month period, these companies worked with DARPA to characterize their approach to a utility-scale quantum computer and demonstrate a plausible path forward. Stage B Selection: Now, 11 companies have been selected to enter Stage B.

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> In November 2025, Quantinuum unveiled Helios, a new 98-qubit quantum processor that pushes the frontier of quantum computing...

- Published: 2025-11-08
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantinuum-helios-architecture/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
In November 2025, Quantinuum unveiled Helios, a new 98-qubit quantum processor that pushes the frontier of quantum computing with a novel trapped-ion architecture. It also published an accompanying paper on arXiv "Helios: A 98-qubit trapped-ion quantum computer." Helios is based on the quantum charge-coupled device (QCCD) design, meaning it physically moves ion qubits around on a chip like an information bus, rather than relying on fixed wiring. This approach enables all-to-all qubit interactions in a way analogous to routing data between CPU and memory in classical systems. Helios introduces multiple innovations: it uses barium-137 ions for qubits (a first in quantum computing), separates qubit storage from logic operations on the chip, and features a new classical control stack capable of real-time dynamic compilation of quantum programs. For CISOs tracking quantum threats, Helios’s advances merit attention.
Helios’s QCCD Architecture: Barium Ions and a Racetrack Ion Trap with Junctions Helios represents Quantinuum’s third-generation trapped-ion system and introduces several key hardware innovations. First, it swaps ytterbium ions for barium-137 ions as qubits, taking advantage of barium’s friendlier laser requirements and error mitigation. Barium ions can be manipulated with visible-wavelength lasers (versus the ultraviolet lasers needed for Yb), leveraging mature industrial laser tech for better reliability and scalability. Moreover, barium’s atomic structure naturally allows detection and removal of certain qubit errors (such as leakage) at the hardware level. These changes improve operational fidelity and simplify the engineering of a larger machine.

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> In a sign of surging investor confidence in quantum computing, Quantinuum has secured an $800 million funding round that values it at roughly $10B

- Published: 2025-11-06
- Modified: 2025-11-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantinuum-raises-800m/
- Categories: Industry
In a sign of surging investor confidence in quantum computing, Quantinuum - the company formed by Honeywell’s quantum unit and Cambridge Quantum - has secured an $800 million funding round that values it at roughly $10 billion. The raise, announced November 5, is one of the largest ever in the quantum industry and was oversubscribed, expanding from an initial target of $600 million due to high demand. The round brought in heavyweight backers. Fidelity International made its first investment in Quantinuum, and other participants included NVIDIA (via its venture arm), JPMorgan Chase, Mitsui & Co., chemical giant Amgen, and several venture funds. Despite the influx of new capital, Honeywell remains the majority owner with about 54% of shares.

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> A team at Princeton University has achieved a major leap in quantum hardware: a superconducting qubit that retains its quantum state...

- Published: 2025-11-06
- Modified: 2025-11-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/princeton-qubit-coherence/
- Categories: Research
A team at Princeton University has achieved a major leap in quantum hardware: a superconducting qubit that retains its quantum state for over 1 millisecond - roughly three times longer than the previous record. This coherence time of 1 ms, reported in Nature on November 5, marks the largest single improvement in qubit lifetime in over a decade. Longer-lived qubits directly translate to fewer errors, which is crucial for building practical quantum computers. The breakthrough came from materials innovation. Most superconducting qubits (transmons) are made with aluminum circuits on sapphire substrates. The Princeton team instead used tantalum metal on a high-purity silicon substrate. Tantalum has far fewer microscopic defects on its surfaces compared to aluminum, and those defects (tiny two-level fluctuators) are a primary cause of qubit decoherence. By switching to tantalum-on-silicon and perfecting the fabrication, the researchers dramatically reduced energy loss in the qubit circuit.

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> California is making a bid to become the epicenter of the quantum tech economy. Governor Gavin Newsom unveiled Quantum California...

- Published: 2025-11-06
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ionq-quantum-network-geneva/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland
California is making a bid to become the epicenter of the quantum tech economy. In early November, Governor Gavin Newsom unveiled Quantum California, a new statewide initiative to align academia, industry, and government in accelerating quantum innovation. Announced at an event at UC Berkeley, the initiative comes with initial legislation (Assembly Bill 940) and $4 million in funding to kick-start the effort. Quantum California has a broad mandate: to turn the state’s research strengths in quantum into companies, jobs, and economic leadership. California is already home to top quantum research centers (the state uniquely hosts both a National Science Foundation and a Department of Energy quantum center, at UCSB and Berkeley Lab respectively) and major corporate R&D labs like Google Quantum AI (in Santa Barbara), AWS’s Caltech center, and more. The initiative aims to leverage this by developing a comprehensive strategy - effectively a roadmap for growing California’s quantum ecosystem.

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> Quantinuum, a leading quantum computing firm, has officially launched Helios, a new general-purpose quantum computing system

- Published: 2025-11-06
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantinuum-launches-helios-sg/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Singapore
Quantinuum, a leading quantum computing firm, has officially launched Helios, a new general-purpose quantum computing system designed for enterprise use. Billed as “the world’s most accurate” commercial quantum computer, Helios is engineered to tackle hybrid quantum-classical workloads and is set to be deployed in Singapore as the company’s first system outside the United States. This launch marks a significant milestone in Quantinuum’s roadmap, combining cutting-edge hardware fidelity with an advanced software stack to accelerate real-world quantum applications. Helios: Architecture and Hybrid Capabilities At its core, Helios features a trapped-ion quantum processor with 98 fully connected qubits, achieving record-high gate fidelities (≈99.921% for two-qubit operations). The ion-trap architecture (leveraging Quantinuum’s QCCD design) provides all-to-all connectivity between qubits, a flexibility that gives Helios an edge over fixed-qubit superconducting systems. Notably, Helios introduces the use of barium ions (replacing ytterbium in earlier models) as qubits, which simplifies laser control and even enables automatic error leakage removal at the atomic level. These architectural advances nearly double the qubit count of its predecessor (the H2 system with 56 qubits) while surpassing H2’s already industry-leading fidelity.

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> American officials are doubling down on quantum research. On November 4, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced $625 million

- Published: 2025-11-05
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/us-625m-renew/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United States
American officials are doubling down on quantum research. On November 4, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced $625 million in funding to renew its five National Quantum Information Science Research Centers for another five years. These centers, originally established in 2020 under the National Quantum Initiative Act of 2018, bring together national labs, universities, and companies to push the frontiers of quantum computing, networking, sensing and materials science. Each center is hosted at a major DOE national laboratory and focuses on different challenges in quantum technology. For example, Brookhaven National Lab leads the Co-design Center for Quantum Advantage (C2QA), which works on improving superconducting qubit materials and developing modular quantum architectures. Fermilab hosts the Superconducting Quantum Materials and Systems Center (SQMS), aiming to scale up high-quality superconducting devices (like long-lived microwave cavities) and build the groundwork for “quantum data centers”.

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> Quantum computing promises revolutionary capabilities, but it also poses unprecedented threats to cybersecurity. So we need an ISAC...

- Published: 2025-11-05
- Modified: 2025-11-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/need-quantum-isac/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Quantum computing promises revolutionary capabilities, but it also poses unprecedented threats to cybersecurity. Experts warn of a looming “Quantum Apocalypse” scenario - the day when a sufficiently advanced quantum computer can crack encryption like RSA or ECC, exposing sensitive data that was once considered secure. And of course, there's the already present "harvest now, decrypt later." The potential impact of cryptography-breaking quantum computers is global and cross-industry. If our current encryption fails, the fallout would extend far beyond government secrets - financial transactions, healthcare data, critical infrastructure controls, and everyday online communications could all be compromised. Security leaders emphasize that confronting this paradigm shift will be an enormous coordination challenge. At a White House advisory meeting, experts stressed that migrating to new quantum-safe encryption across our “complex technology ecosystem” could take years, if not decades, and that we must start now with broad public-private partnerships

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> Quantum computing is rapidly shifting from lab prototypes to cloud-based services. Organizations will access quantum capabilities “as a service”...

- Published: 2025-11-05
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/sovereign-quantum-compute-cloud/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
Quantum computing is rapidly shifting from lab prototypes to cloud-based services. Most organizations will access quantum capabilities “as a service” through cloud platforms, rather than owning a quantum computer on-premise. This shift reframes the sovereignty debate. The question is no longer simply “Who owns the qubits?” but rather “Who controls the access to those qubits?” When quantum processing is delivered via remote services, national and regional authorities must consider issues like scheduling control, data residency, auditability, and supply-chain trust in the entire service stack. In short, quantum computing sovereignty hinges on control over the compute access model itself. From Owning Qubits to Governing Access For emerging quantum services, control over access can be as important as ownership of the hardware. In a cloud-based quantum model, users send jobs to remote quantum processors via an API, and results are returned over the network. This convenience comes with trade-offs. A nation might not physically own the quantum machine, yet the service provider effectively controls who can use it, when, and under what rules. Key sovereignty questions therefore shift to: Who manages the scheduling and priority of quantum jobs? Who can audit and verify the computations? Where does the code and data reside during processing? And under whose jurisdiction and export laws does the service operate?

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> In a landmark deal for the quantum industry, Canada’s Xanadu Quantum Technologies announced plans to go public via a merger...

- Published: 2025-11-04
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/xanadu-public/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Canada
In a landmark deal for the quantum industry, Canada’s Xanadu Quantum Technologies announced plans to go public via a merger with a special-purpose acquisition company (SPAC). The deal, unveiled November 3, values Xanadu at a pre-money equity value of US$3 billion and is expected to provide around $500 million in gross proceeds for the company’s expansionthequantuminsider.com. Once completed, Xanadu will become the world’s first publicly traded pure-play photonic quantum computing firm, with shares listed on the NASDAQ and Toronto exchanges. Xanadu is known for its photonic approach to quantum computers - using laser pulses and optical circuits (beam splitters, interferometers, etc.) to create qubits and perform computations at room temperature. Its 216-qubit Borealis photonic processor made headlines in 2022 by achieving a quantum computational advantage (solving a sampling problem faster than a supercomputer could). More recently, Xanadu demonstrated Aurora, a modular photonic quantum architecture that was the first to show real-time error correction decoding with light-based qubits. Unlike superconducting qubits that need deep cryogenic cooling, Xanadu’s photonic chips run in standard lab conditions, which could simplify scaling up.

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> Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) will likely fall to quantum computers before RSA does - a cruel irony, since ECC's smaller keys were considered an advantage

- Published: 2025-11-04
- Modified: 2026-03-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/shor-rsa-ecc-diffie-hellman/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) will likely fall to quantum computers before RSA does - a cruel irony, since ECC's smaller keys were considered an advantage. Shor's algorithm needs roughly 2,330 logical qubits and 126 billion Toffoli gates to break P-256 ECDSA, versus approximately 1,409 logical qubits but 6.5 billion Toffoli gates for RSA-2048. At equivalent classical security levels (P-256 ≈ RSA-3072), the disparity becomes dramatic: ECC requires 2.6× fewer qubits and 148× fewer Toffoli gates than its RSA counterpart. Meanwhile, Diffie-Hellman over finite fields shares RSA's exact mathematical vulnerability and resource profile. All three cryptosystems reduce to a single quantum-solvable framework - the abelian hidden subgroup problem - meaning one algorithmic breakthrough threatens them simultaneously. One algorithm, three cryptosystems: Shor's hidden subgroup attack RSA, elliptic curve cryptography, and Diffie-Hellman appear mathematically distinct, but Shor's algorithm reveals a deep structural unity. All three cryptosystems rely on problems that are instances of the Hidden Subgroup Problem (HSP) over finite abelian groups. Integer factoring reduces to finding the period of f(x)=ax mod Nf(x) = a^x \bmod N in the multiplicative group (Z/NZ)∗(\mathbb{Z}/N\mathbb{Z})^*. The finite-field discrete logarithm problem underpinning Diffie-Hellman reduces to an HSP over Zp×Zp\mathbb{Z}_p \times \mathbb{Z}_p The elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem reduces to finding a hidden subgroup in Zr×Zr\mathbb{Z}_r \times \mathbb{Z}_r, where rrr is the order of the base point.

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> China has reached a new milestone in quantum computing with the deployment of Hǎnyuán-1, the country’s first room-temperature neutral-atom

- Published: 2025-11-01
- Modified: 2026-04-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-100-qubit/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
China has reached a new milestone in quantum computing with the deployment of Hǎnyuán-1, the country’s first room-temperature neutral-atom quantum computer. Announced in late October in Hubei Province, Hǎnyuán-1 is a 100-qubit system that has now entered commercial use - reportedly with over ¥40 million (~$5.6 million) in orders from customers. One unit has already been delivered to a subsidiary of China Mobile, and another is being exported to Pakistan, marking one of the first international sales of a Chinese quantum computer. Hǎnyuán-1 employs arrays of “cold” neutral atoms as qubits, manipulated by lasers but operating at room temperature (in contrast to superconducting qubits that need dilution refrigerators). The entire machine fits in only three standard equipment racks and consumes much less power than typical quantum setups - Chinese officials claim it uses about one-tenth the energy of comparable foreign systems. Avoiding cryogenics and leveraging compact lasers make it relatively portable and practical for field deployment.

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> The European Union is laying the groundwork for a major legislative push in quantum technologies with a proposed EU Quantum Act...

- Published: 2025-11-01
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eu-quantum-act/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Europe
The European Union (EU) is laying the groundwork for a major legislative push in quantum technologies with a proposed EU Quantum Act, aiming to unify and amplify Europe’s efforts in the global quantum race. On October 31, the European Commission opened a public consultation (Call for Evidence) for stakeholders to help shape this Quantum Act, which is slated for adoption in 2026. The envisioned Quantum Act has three primary objectives for this “critical and dual-use” technology area: Boost research and innovation - building on Europe’s strong scientific base in quantum. This likely means expanded funding for R&D programs, fostering collaboration across EU countries (addressing fragmentation), and supporting the education and training of quantum scientists and engineers. Scale up industrial capacity - moving from lab prototypes to mass production of quantum devices. The Act specifically mentions establishing pilot production lines and a chip design facility for quantum technologies. This is analogous to the EU Chips Act but for quantum: creating infrastructure where European companies can fabricate quantum processors, sensors, and communication hardware at scale. By doing so, the EU wants to incubate home-grown quantum startups and ensure a supply of critical components (like qubit chips, photonic circuits, cryogenic electronics) without relying on non-EU imports. Reinforce supply chain resilience and governance - ensuring Europe has control over key parts of the quantum value chain and setting up governance structures to coordinate efforts. Quantum tech is considered dual-use (civil and military applications), so supply chain security (avoiding single points of failure or dependence) is crucial. Governance could mean new EU-level bodies or public-private partnerships to steer quantum initiatives, as well as regulations or standards to guide development responsibly.

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> A global race is on to build cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQCs) - machines powerful enough to break current encryption...

- Published: 2025-11-01
- Modified: 2025-11-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/securing-quantum-computers/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
A global race is on to build cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQCs) - machines powerful enough to break current encryption. Governments and industry are pouring billions into quantum R&D, and intelligence analysts scrutinize whether a geopolitical rival might secretly be ahead. Yet amid this focus on who builds a quantum codebreaker first, an alternative threat vector is often overlooked: an adversary might not need to build their own CRQC if they can hack the classical systems surrounding someone else’s quantum computer. Why spend years and billions on engineering a quantum breakthrough if you could steal or hijack access to your rival’s quantum capabilities? Indeed, history shows that in high-tech contests, stealing technology or sabotaging competitors can be as decisive as out-innovating them. Recent espionage campaigns targeting quantum technology lend credence to this premise. Western counter-intelligence agencies warn that fields like quantum computing face espionage “at real scale,” extending beyond traditional military targets to hit startups and academic labs. In 2024, Dutch intelligence revealed a Chinese cyber operation that breached dozens of Western government and industry networks to pilfer advanced tech, explicitly including quantum innovations. Russian state-backed hackers have likewise been caught probing U.S. quantum research labs, attempting to steal sensitive quantum algorithms and data. These incidents suggest hostile nation-states are already pursuing the “hack instead of (or in addition to) build” strategy.

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> Scientists have built a diamond-based quantum sensor that operates stably at pressures up to 240 GPa - about 2.4 million atmospheres...

- Published: 2025-10-31
- Modified: 2025-11-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-sensor-pressures/
- Categories: Research
Quantum sensing is conquering extreme frontiers. Scientists have built a diamond-based quantum sensor that operates stably at pressures up to 240 GPa - about 2.4 million atmospheres, equivalent to the pressure in Earth’s core. This feat, reported October 30 by a team led by Qingtao Hao and colleagues, shatters previous records (which were on the order of 100-140 GPa) for quantum measurements under compression. The researchers fabricated improved diamond chips containing nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers - atomic-scale quantum defects that act as sensitive magnetometers. By creating shallow NV centers near the diamond surface and using advanced diamond anvil cells, they could maintain NV quantum coherence even as they squeezed the diamonds to multi-megabar pressures. In one demonstration, the sensor successfully detected the Meissner effect (magnetic expulsion signaling superconductivity) in a sample of titanium at 180 GPa, confirming that the NV centers could observe subtle magnetic phenomena in materials under extreme compression.

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> Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) refers to the holistic process of designing, assembling, and deploying quantum computing systems...

- Published: 2025-10-31
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-systems-integration/quantum-systems-integration/
- Categories: Quantum Systems Integration, Quantum Open Architecture QOA
Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) refers to the holistic process of designing, assembling, and deploying quantum computing systems and ensuring they work seamlessly with classical systems. In simpler terms, a quantum systems integrator is like a general contractor for quantum projects - bringing together the “parts” (quantum processors, control electronics, cryogenic hardware, software, networking) and making sure they all operate in concert. Historically, this wasn’t even a distinct role; in the early decades of quantum research, each lab built its own bespoke setup, and commercial quantum computers were offered as indivisible full-stack products by companies like IBM, Google, or D-Wave. But today, with the rise of QOA and a growing ecosystem of quantum components, a new class of specialists is emerging to fill the gap between quantum technology and practical deployment. These are the quantum systems integrators, and they operate much like traditional IT systems integrators - except their toolkits include dilution refrigerators and qubit control racks alongside cloud APIs and security protocols. Under the traditional closed-stack model, a single vendor builds the entire quantum computing stack end-to-end (the qubits, control hardware, cryostat, software, etc.), often with proprietary interfaces that lock a customer into that one vendor’s ecosystem.

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> Talk of quantum sovereignty - a nation’s independent control over quantum technology - means little unless backed by tangible supply chain control.

- Published: 2025-10-31
- Modified: 2026-02-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-supply-chain-sovereignty/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
Talk of quantum sovereignty - a nation’s independent control over quantum technology - means little unless backed by tangible supply chain control. Quantum innovation relies on narrow, specialized supply chains that are globally dispersed and often fragile. Major powers have realized this and are pivoting from pure research funding to securing the physical and human infrastructure for a quantum industry. The objective is to ensure that specialized tools of production - from cryogenic refrigeration systems to precision photonic components - remain under trusted domestic or allied control. In practice, this means scrutinizing every item on the quantum computing “bill of materials” and asking: who makes this, and could we get it if geopolitics turn sour? Achieving sovereignty does not imply total self-sufficiency (autarky). Instead, experts emphasize a blend of sovereignty and optionality. The goal isn’t to cover the entire quantum stack alone, but to ensure core strategic pieces can be produced or procured on your own terms. In other words, nations seek selective self-reliance for critical components and multiple options for everything else. By investing in key domestic capabilities while diversifying partnerships, countries aim to have a “minimum viable” quantum toolkit under sovereign control. What follows is a look at the quantum industrial base - layer by layer - and where the true chokepoints lie.

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> NVIDIA is forging a tighter link between quantum and classical supercomputers. At its GTC Washington, D.C. event NVIDIA unveiled NVQLink...

- Published: 2025-10-29
- Modified: 2025-11-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nvidia-quantum-classical/
- Categories: Industry
NVIDIA is forging a tighter link between quantum and classical supercomputers. At its GTC Washington, D.C. event on October 28, NVIDIA unveiled NVQLink, a new high-speed interconnect and open architecture that couples quantum processors (QPUs) directly with GPU-accelerated supercomputers. The system supports a broad ecosystem - connecting 17 different quantum hardware platforms (from startups like IonQ, Pasqal, Quantinuum, Rigetti and others) and nine U.S. national laboratories via ultra-fast links. By enabling QPUs to plug in seamlessly with powerful GPU nodes, NVQLink creates a hybrid quantum-classical supercomputing platform. The motivation is to overcome a key bottleneck in today’s quantum computing: qubits are fragile and error-prone, requiring continuous, low-latency classical control for tasks like error correction and calibration. Traditionally, quantum experiments have been limited by slow connections to classical computers. NVQLink solves this by providing a deterministic, high-bandwidth interface between QPUs and conventional HPC systems, so that error-correcting algorithms and feedback can run in real time. In practice, this means future “quantum-accelerated” supercomputers could tackle complex problems - in chemistry, materials science, optimization and more - faster than classical machines alone, by offloading parts to quantum co-processors.

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> As of October 2025, a major milestone was reached: over 50% of human web traffic through Cloudflare’s network is now protected...

- Published: 2025-10-29
- Modified: 2025-11-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/cloudflare-pqc-majority-traffic/
- Categories: Industry
The Internet is quietly undergoing a massive cryptographic upgrade to resist quantum attacks - and as of October 2025, a major milestone was reached: over 50% of human web traffic through Cloudflare’s network is now protected with post-quantum encryption. Cloudflare, which operates one of the world’s largest content delivery and security networks handling a significant chunk of global internet traffic, announced that the “majority of human-initiated traffic” it processes is using quantum-resistant keys in the TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocol. Practically, this means if you visit a website and your connection goes through Cloudflare (which many sites use), there’s a better than even chance that the HTTPS connection is secured by a hybrid classical/post-quantum key exchange - typically combining a conventional algorithm like X25519 with a post-quantum algorithm like Kyber. These hybrid TLS handshakes ensure that even if an adversary records the encrypted traffic now, they wouldn’t be able to decrypt it later with a quantum computer (the post-quantum component foils the “harvest now, decrypt later” attack).

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> Cybersecurity lore often paints Q-Day (the moment a quantum computer cracks RSA/ECC encryption) as an instant "Quantum Apocalypse"...

- Published: 2025-10-25
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qday-confidence-crisis/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Q-Day, Q-Day Prediction
- Tags: Energy & Utilities, Finance & Banking, Government & Defense, Payments, Telecommunications
Cybersecurity lore often paints Q-Day (the moment a quantum computer cracks RSA/ECC encryption) as an instant "Quantum Apocalypse" where every system gets hacked immediately. Planes falling from the sky, banks drained in seconds, an overnight digital Armageddon - if that nightmare doesn’t happen, some assume Q-Day wasn’t so bad after all. But this view misses a crucial point. The real catastrophe of Q-Day isn’t that everything will crash at once - it’s that our confidence in all things digital will collapse in an instant. In reality, when quantum code-breaking arrives, nothing visibly “breaks” on day one - websites still load, bank apps still work - yet one of the fundamental pillars of our digital world will have crumbled: trust in our encryption. Imagine waking up to headlines that researchers have factored an RSA-2048 key with a quantum computer. No cities go dark; your devices don’t explode. Yet beneath the calm surface, every encrypted email, bank transaction, and login that was secure yesterday is suddenly open to doubt. Q-Day is less a “lights out” event and more a silent invasion - the castle walls still stand, but the enemy just found the master key to every gate. The immediate crisis won’t be computers failing; it will be people - CEOs, governments, consumers - panicking as the trust in all digital systems vanishes.

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> A European research team demonstrated quantum key distribution (QKD) over 120 km of optical fiber while sharing that fiber with normal data traffic

- Published: 2025-10-25
- Modified: 2025-11-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/qkd-distance-120/
- Categories: Research
NVIDIA is forging a tighter link between quantum and classical supercomputers. At its GTC Washington, D.C. event on October 28, NVIDIA unveiled NVQLink, a new high-speed interconnect and open architecture that couples quantum processors (QPUs) directly with GPU-accelerated supercomputers. The system supports a broad ecosystem - connecting 17 different quantum hardware platforms (from startups like IonQ, Pasqal, Quantinuum, Rigetti and others) and nine U.S. national laboratories via ultra-fast links. By enabling QPUs to plug in seamlessly with powerful GPU nodes, NVQLink creates a hybrid quantum-classical supercomputing platform. The motivation is to overcome a key bottleneck in today’s quantum computing: qubits are fragile and error-prone, requiring continuous, low-latency classical control for tasks like error correction and calibration. Traditionally, quantum experiments have been limited by slow connections to classical computers. NVQLink solves this by providing a deterministic, high-bandwidth interface between QPUs and conventional HPC systems, so that error-correcting algorithms and feedback can run in real time. In practice, this means future “quantum-accelerated” supercomputers could tackle complex problems - in chemistry, materials science, optimization and more - faster than classical machines alone, by offloading parts to quantum co-processors.

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> IBM has reached a crucial milestone on the road to fault-tolerant quantum computing - and it did so using off-the-shelf hardware...

- Published: 2025-10-25
- Modified: 2025-11-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/ibm-amd-qec/
- Categories: Systems & Engineering
IBM has reached a crucial milestone on the road to fault-tolerant quantum computing - and it did so using off-the-shelf hardware. In late October, IBM revealed that a key quantum error-correction algorithm it developed can run in real time on standard AMD field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). This means IBM’s classical control system can keep up with qubit errors without needing exotic custom processors, marking significant progress in making quantum computers reliable and scalable. The announcement, reported by Reuters on October 24, highlighted that IBM’s error-correcting code ran 10 times faster on the AMD chips than the minimum speed required for effective error mitigation. “Implementing it, and showing that the implementation is actually 10 times faster than what is needed, is a big deal,” said Jay Gambetta, IBM’s head of quantum research. In simpler terms, the classical side of IBM’s quantum stack has horsepower to spare when crunching the error correction algorithms - a reassuring fact for engineers.

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> Google’s 105-qubit Willow quantum processor was used to demonstrate a “verifiable quantum advantage,” performing certain...

- Published: 2025-10-22
- Modified: 2025-10-22
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/googles-quantum-advantage/
- Categories: Research
Google’s 105-qubit Willow quantum processor was used to demonstrate a “verifiable quantum advantage,” performing certain calculations much faster than a classical supercomputer could. Google’s Quantum AI team announced that Willow executed a new algorithm called “Quantum Echoes,” which involves measuring subtle quantum “echo” signals in a chaotic system (technically known as out-of-time-order correlators). This marked the first time a quantum computer has beaten classical supercomputers at a task and provided an answer that can be reliably verified by repeating the experiment on another quantum machine of similar caliber. According to Google, the Quantum Echoes computation ran 13,000× faster on the Willow chip than the best classical algorithm could run on one of the world’s fastest supercomputers. In practical terms, a calculation that might take Frontier (a top-tier supercomputer) an estimated 150 years was completed in a few days on Willow. This dramatic speedup, coupled with the ability to “check the work” by rerunning on a quantum device, is what Google calls verifiable quantum advantage - a significant milestone towards useful quantum computing.

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> IonQ announced a new world record in quantum gate performance: >99.99% two‑qubit fidelity demonstrated on trapped‑ion hardware...

- Published: 2025-10-21
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/ionq-record-2025/
- Categories: Research, Quantum Security & PQC
IonQ announced a new world record in quantum gate performance: >99.99% two‑qubit fidelity demonstrated on trapped‑ion hardware without ground‑state cooling. IonQ says the result comes from a new “smooth gate” technique developed by the Oxford Ionics team (now part of IonQ) and claims it will underpin 256‑qubit prototype systems in 2026 and a long‑term roadmap to millions of qubits by 2030. What was achieved in plain English Record accuracy without extra cooling. IonQ’s team ran the basic two‑qubit operation that creates entanglement and got it right more than 99.99% of the time - and they did it without the slow, last‑mile “ground‑state cooling” step that trapped‑ion systems usually need. Think of it as getting top‑tier performance without warming up the engine for minutes beforehand. It stayed accurate even when the system was “hotter.” They deliberately heated the ions’ motion and still kept errors at or below 0.0005 per gate. (In ion‑speak: the average phonon number on the gate mode was pushed up to n̄ ≈ 9.4 and the gate still behaved.) A new way to run the gate made this possible. Instead of finely timing strong pushes on the ions (the usual approach), they slowly slid the gate’s frequency “off‑center” and back during the operation. This gentler, guided route avoids the kind of motion‑related errors that get worse as the ions warm up - so the system remains accurate above the Doppler cooling limit (i.e., at a normal, easier‑to‑reach “cool” temperature rather than an ultra‑cold ground state). Why it matters. In big, practical trapped‑ion machines, cooling and shuttling ions around often eat most of the runtime. If you can skip the slowest cooling step and still run with four‑nines accuracy, you can execute much longer programs faster and with less engineering complexity. That’s a real systems‑level win, not just a nice number in a lab demo. IonQ’s storyline. IonQ says this technique underpins 256‑qubit systems planned for 2026 and feeds into its electronics‑first (EQC) roadmap toward much larger machines later in the decade.

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> Quantum computing is no longer a far-off hypothesis - it’s an emerging reality that could render today’s encryption obsolete... and create legal risks

- Published: 2025-10-19
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/legal-risks-quantum/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Quantum computing is no longer a far-off hypothesis - it’s a rapidly emerging reality that could render today’s encryption obsolete. For CISOs and their boards, this means a new kind of cybersecurity crisis is on the horizon. Sensitive data that is safely encrypted now may be sitting like a ticking time bomb, waiting to be cracked by tomorrow’s quantum machines. The message is clear: security leaders must start preparing now - or face severe legal and fiduciary consequences when “Q-day” finally hits. The Quantum Threat and “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (HNDL) Quantum computing poses an unprecedented security threat: once sufficiently powerful quantum computers arrive, they will break the encryption protecting virtually all digital data today. Adversaries are not waiting for that day - they are stealing encrypted data now with plans to decrypt it later when quantum capabilities mature, the so-called “harvest now, decrypt later” (HNDL) strategy. In other words, a breach may effectively be occurring today (data exfiltration), even if the actual harm (decryption of sensitive information) will only manifest years from now when quantum decryption becomes feasible.

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> Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) is entering the standards stage, with the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

- Published: 2025-10-13
- Modified: 2026-02-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/sovereignty-quantum-pqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Sovereignty
Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) is entering the standards stage, with the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) recently selecting the first quantum-resistant algorithms. However, the future of PQC will not be as straightforward as simply adopting NIST’s choices globally. A strong push for digital sovereignty is emerging around the world, driven by eroding trust in foreign (particularly U.S.) technology. Nations are seeking greater control over their cryptography and cybersecurity, which means the coming quantum-safe world could splinter into multiple standards and approaches rather than one universally adopted suite. The implications of this trend are far-reaching.

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> I’ve been inundated with messages asking about a recent paper titled “A Modular, Adaptive, and Scalable Quantum Factoring Algorithm.”

- Published: 2025-10-12
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/modular-quantum-factoring/
- Categories: Research
I’ve been inundated with messages asking about a recent paper titled “A Modular, Adaptive, and Scalable Quantum Factoring Algorithm.” On social media and even some press articles, this paper has been touted as a breakthrough - with claims that it dramatically reduces qubit requirements and possibly signals an imminent threat to RSA encryption. Understandably, CISOs in my network are alarmed, wondering if Q-Day (the day a quantum computer breaks RSA) just got pulled closer. At its core, Shukla and Vedula’s paper tackles one part of Shor’s famous quantum factoring algorithm: the quantum phase estimation (QPE) routine (often implemented via a Quantum Fourier Transform) used to find the period of a function as the key step in factoring. In standard Shor’s algorithm, phase estimation requires a large phase register (on the order of twice the number of bits of the integer you want to factor) and a deep, coherent quantum circuit - something far beyond today’s Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) hardware. The new paper’s idea is to break this phase estimation into smaller, shallow modules (or “windows”) that use only a few qubits at a time and can be run sequentially, with classical post-processing to combine the results. In other words, instead of one big monolithic circuit, they propose many bite-sized circuits.

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> I’m proud, both personally and professionally, to share that Applied Quantum’s podcast, The Quantum Minute, produced by...

- Published: 2025-10-12
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-minute-best-podcast/
- Categories: Industry
I’m proud, both personally and professionally, to share that Applied Quantum’s podcast, The Quantum Minute, produced by Cybercrime Magazine, has been named Best Podcast Series of 2025. But what makes this win truly meaningful isn’t just that our show received an award. It’s where this recognition came from - and what it signals about the future of cybersecurity itself. Cybercrime Magazine is one of the most influential voices in cybersecurity media. Its podcasts - spanning topics from ransomware to SOC operations - shape conversations across the CISO community, industry analysts, regulators, and enterprise security teams worldwide. So when a quantum-focused podcast wins the top honor within a cybersecurity network, it marks a turning point: quantum technologies have officially entered the core dialogue of the cyber world.

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> What is "Trust Now, Forge Later" (TNFL)? Most discussions about quantum computing threats focus on “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (HNDL)...

- Published: 2025-10-10
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/trust-now-forge-later/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
What is "Trust Now, Forge Later" (TNFL)? Most discussions about quantum computing threats focus on “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (HNDL) - the idea that adversaries can collect encrypted data today and store it, hoping a future quantum computer will break the encryption and expose sensitive information. This risk is very real, especially for data that needs to remain confidential for decades (think government secrets, health records, long-term intellectual property). In essence, HNDL is a confidentiality threat: today’s intercepted secrets might be decrypted tomorrow. Yet there’s another quantum-enabled danger that receives far less publicity, one that worries me even more. I previously termed it “Sign Today, Forge Tomorrow” (STFT), but more recently, another, probably better term, is gaining traction: “Trust Now, Forge Later” (TNFL) - this is the digital signature equivalent of HNDL. It means that we could trust a signature or certificate today, but attackers forge it once quantum machines arrive, undermining its validity in the future.

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> A Dutch-led research team has achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum cryptanalysis of lattices. In an October 2025 paper...

- Published: 2025-10-10
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-sieving-breakthrough/
- Categories: Research
A Dutch-led research team has achieved a significant breakthrough in quantum cryptanalysis of lattices. In an October 2025 paper "An Improved Quantum Algorithm for 3-Tuple Lattice Sieving" on arXiv, the authors report reducing the time complexity exponent for a key lattice attack from 0.3098 to 0.2846. In practical terms, this ~8% drop in the exponent translates to a theoretical speedup on the order of tens of millions for large lattice dimensions. For example, at dimension d = 1000, the previous best heuristic quantum attack took roughly $2^{0.3098 \cdot 1000}$ steps, whereas the new method takes about $2^{0.2846 \cdot 1000}$ steps - a difference factor of approximately $2^{25}$ (around 33-60 million times faster). Crucially, the attack still runs in exponential time (so it’s far from “efficient” in the usual sense), but it now marks the fastest known quantum approach to the Shortest Vector Problem (SVP) under stringent memory limits.

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> Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat has now formalized PQC migration as a measurable federal IT obligation via a SPIN...

- Published: 2025-10-10
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/tb-spin-canada-pqc/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Canada
Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat has now formalized PQC migration as a measurable federal IT obligation via a Security Policy Implementation Notice (SPIN) titled “Migrating the Government of Canada to Post‑Quantum Cryptography.” It is both published and effective on October 9, 2025, and it does something the earlier PQC roadmap did not fully achieve on its own: it converts “plan to migrate” into specific deliverables with hard dates, explicit procurement triggers, and a named compliance monitoring path tied to Treasury Board’s broader compliance framework. What SPIN covers and how it will be monitored The SPIN’s scope is broad: it applies to any Government of Canada information system (departmental or enterprise) that employs cryptography, spanning network services, operating systems, applications, code development pipelines, and physical IT assets. It applies to the organizations listed in section 6 of the Policy on Government Security, and it frames the migration plan scope as systems handling up to and including Protected B; for classified systems and systems handling Protected C, departments are directed to contact the Cyber Centre (details for those environments are unspecified on the SPIN page).

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> In the recent IBM's “Secure the Post-Quantum Future” report 62% of executives admitted that their organization is waiting for vendors...

- Published: 2025-10-07
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-vendor/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
In the recent IBM's “Secure the Post-Quantum Future” report 62% of executives admitted that their organization is waiting for vendors to make them quantum‑safe. In other words, they expect cloud providers, network equipment makers and software vendors to embed post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) so that internal teams can simply apply updates. This mindset is understandable - modern enterprises depend on vast supply chains - but it is also dangerous. Waiting for vendors delays critical preparations, increases operational risk and ignores the reality that boards and CISOs are accountable for protecting their data and systems. Vendors play a crucial role, yet quantum readiness is not something that can be outsourced.

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> The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics went to John Clarke, Michel Devoret and John Martinis for a deceptively simple...

- Published: 2025-10-07
- Modified: 2025-10-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nobel-prize-physics-2025-quantum/
- Categories: Industry
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics went to John Clarke, Michel Devoret and John Martinis for a deceptively simple yet profound experiment. They built a superconducting circuit - two superconductors separated by an insulating barrier known as a Josephson junction - and showed that a system big enough to hold in your hand can still display the bizarre rules of quantum mechanics. Their chip revealed that a macroscopic current can tunnel through an energy barrier and that the circuit’s energy is quantised; in other words, it can only absorb or emit precise amounts of energy. This demonstration answers a long‑standing question about whether quantum effects disappear when many particles are involved and lays the groundwork for quantum technologies.

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> A new report from IBM’s Institute for Business Value (IBV) titled "Secure the Post-Quantum Future" was released.

- Published: 2025-10-06
- Modified: 2025-10-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-secure-the-post-quantum-future/
- Categories: Industry
A new 2025 report from IBM’s Institute for Business Value (IBV), in collaboration with the Cloud Security Alliance (CSA), paints a stark picture of enterprise readiness for the quantum era. Titled ”Secure the post-quantum future,” the study surveyed 750 executives worldwide on their preparations for quantum-enabled cyber threats. The results reveal a widening gap between rising awareness and lagging action on quantum-safe security. IBM and CSA’s report underscores that quantum-safe preparation should be viewed as a continuous operational capability, not merely insurance against a distant threat. In practice, that means building crypto-agility into the enterprise - the ability to swiftly identify, test, and swap out cryptographic schemes as threats evolve. Developing this muscle will strengthen your overall security posture regardless of when quantum attacks materialize. Done right, a quantum-safe program yields immediate benefits: deeper visibility into cryptographic assets, more rigorous governance of data protection, and an organization adept at managing complex tech transitions. It’s an ongoing journey of modernization, akin to cloud or AI transformation, rather than a checkbox project for the IT department.

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> Announcements of 2025 Nobel Prize winners start tomorrow. With announcements for Nobel Prize for Physics scheduled for Tuesday 7 October.

- Published: 2025-10-05
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/2025-nobel-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Announcements of 2025 Nobel Prize winners start tomorrow. With announcements for Nobel Prize for Physics scheduled for Tuesday 7 October. Every autumn I indulge in a guilty pleasure: browsing speculative lists of Nobel Prize contenders and trying to guess who might pick up the world’s most coveted science prize. Part of the fun is that the Nobel process is shrouded in secrecy. According to the Nobel Foundation, nominations for the physics prize are solicited by the Nobel Committee from a small cadre of selected scientists each September. The committee keeps the names of nominees and any related documentation sealed for fifty years, so even the nominees often do not know they were considered. After screening the nominations and consulting external experts, the committee recommends candidates to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, which makes the final decision in October and announces the winner the following week. That secrecy, combined with an appetite for scientific drama, makes prediction season fun.

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> A team of researchers at the University of Arizona has published a new paper titled “Attosecond quantum uncertainty...

- Published: 2025-10-04
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/capturing-uncertainty/
- Categories: Research
A team of researchers led by Dr. Mohammed Th. Hassan at the University of Arizona has published a new paper titled “Attosecond quantum uncertainty dynamics and ultrafast squeezed light for quantum communication” (Sennary et al., 2025) in Light: Science & Applications. This study reports the first-ever direct capture and control of quantum uncertainty in real time using ultrafast “squeezed” light pulses. In plain terms, the experiment achieves what was previously thought impossible - observing the famous Heisenberg uncertainty principle as it unfolds, at timescales of attoseconds (quintillionths of a second). The significance is enormous: by visualizing and tuning quantum fluctuations on-the-fly, the researchers open new frontiers in secure quantum communication and sensing. Nearly a century after Werner Heisenberg first described quantum uncertainty, this breakthrough provides a new perspective on that principle and “opens avenues for innovations in secure communication and quantum sensing”.

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> A new peer-reviewed study in Physical Review X reports a breakthrough in quantum computing hardware...

- Published: 2025-10-04
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/above-1-k-qubits/
- Categories: Research
A new peer-reviewed study in Physical Review X reports a breakthrough in quantum computing hardware: researchers at the startup EeroQ have successfully trapped and controlled individual qubits at 1.1 kelvin - over 100 times hotter than the ~10 millikelvin temperatures used by today’s quantum processors. The paper, titled “Sensing and Control of Single Trapped Electrons Above 1 Kelvin,” was published on October 2, 2025. In it, EeroQ’s team describes the first-ever demonstration of detecting and manipulating single electrons on superfluid helium at above 1 K. This was achieved using on-chip superconducting microwave circuits to read out the electrons’ state - a technique compatible with existing quantum computing hardware.

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> 10 Oct 2025 - The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security’s newly released ITSM.00.501 is the most procurement-ready PQC artifact...

- Published: 2025-10-04
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/canada-itsm-00-501-pqc/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Canada
10 Oct 2025 - The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security’s newly released ITSM.00.501 is the most procurement-ready PQC artifact Canada has published so far: it translates “migrate to PQC” into contract clauses that vendors can actually quote, negotiate, and commit to. The headline signal is a vendor-facing expectation that key establishment and digital signature cryptographic modules support PQC by the end of 2026, backed by cryptographic agility requirements and CMVP/CAVP validation language. While ITSM.00.501 is not law (and is explicitly not legal advice), it becomes materially more consequential when paired with Treasury Board direction that makes these types of clauses standard for new federal contracts with digital components. What was published and when ITSM.00.501 (“Recommended contract clauses for cryptography”) is a Management-series publication with Revision 1 listed as “First release: September 1, 2025.” The publication states it “takes effect on September 2025,” but does not specify a day for the effective date (only a month). Two framing points matter for how procurement teams should use it. First, the document positions its clauses as examples rather than prescribed legal text, and recommends seeking legal/procurement advice when using them. Second, it is explicitly scoped to cryptography protecting UNCLASSIFIED / PROTECTED A / PROTECTED B information (i.e., the same “non-classified” envelope that anchors most of Canada’s published crypto and PQC guidance).

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> The University of Naples Federico II unveiled Italy’s most powerful quantum computer - a 64-qubit system assembled using a revolutionary...

- Published: 2025-10-03
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/italy-quantum-computer-qoa/
- Categories: Industry, Policy & Sovereignty, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: Italy
The University of Naples Federico II unveiled the country’s most powerful quantum computer - a 64-qubit system assembled using a revolutionary modular design. Powered by a Tenor quantum processing unit (QPU) from Dutch startup QuantWare, this machine now stands as Italy’s largest quantum computer, marking a national milestone in quantum technology. The Tenor chip, containing 64 superconducting qubits, was delivered as a ready-to-integrate component that allowed the Naples team to rapidly build a cutting-edge system without designing their own processor from scratch. Instead of relying on a proprietary “black box” from a big vendor or undertaking a years-long in-house development, the researchers at Naples essentially snapped together a quantum computer from specialized modules - an approach that dramatically shortened the project timeline.

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> The UK’s Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) has released a new Research Note titled “Quantum Computing Applications in Financial Services”

- Published: 2025-10-03
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/fca-quantum-finance/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: Finance & Banking, United Kingdom
The UK’s Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) has released a new Research Note titled “Quantum Computing Applications in Financial Services” authored by Charlie Markham (FCA) and Ross Grassie (formerly of the UK Quantum Software Lab). FCA Research Notes are designed to stimulate debate and inform thinking across industry and policy without constituting formal FCA policy; they present rigorous analysis and the authors’ views rather than binding guidance. This latest note asks a simple but timely question: where might quantum computing matter first in finance, and what should firms and regulators do now to prepare? The decision to focus on quantum in late 2025 is not incidental. The FCA frames this as a critical moment: commercial applications remain emergent, but technical progress is accelerating, and early, proportionate regulatory engagement can help the UK capture opportunities while managing risks for markets and consumers. The macro‑context matters. Financial services account for roughly 9% of UK output and act as an enabler for innovation across the economy, while government has committed long‑horizon investment to quantum, notably the £2.5 billion National Quantum Strategy and further funding aligned to a growth agenda. The FCA signals it wants to be a “smarter regulator” so that regulation does not lag technology and inadvertently bottleneck innovation.

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> Your complete roadmap to quantum security for your organization — from boardroom mandate to operational crypto-agility and PQC migration

- Published: 2025-10-02
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/getting-started-quantum-security-pqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Your complete roadmap to quantum-proofing your organization — from boardroom mandate to operational crypto-agility. This practitioner-curated Deep Dive series collects the PostQuantum.com articles you need to launch and run a quantum-readiness program, organized along the lifecycle most teams actually follow: securing executive buy-in and budget, performing cryptographic discovery and inventory, building a Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM), scoring and prioritizing risk, standing up governance and a realistic multi-year roadmap, running hybrid and PQC pilots, hardening infrastructure for post-quantum performance impacts, and managing vendors and supply chains through the transition. Whether you're a CISO building a business case, a program manager calibrating scale, or a technical lead planning your first pilot, each phase links to detailed, opinionated guidance drawn from real-world PQC migration programs. Start with the comprehensive step-by-step guide at the top, then drill into the phase-by-phase articles that match where your organization is today. This is a living resource — updated as standards, tooling, and lessons learned evolve.

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> Photonic quantum computers bet that light - manufactured in semiconductor fabs and routed over telecom fiber - can scale where...

- Published: 2025-10-02
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/photonic-quantum-ecosystem/
- Categories: Quantum Ecosystem
In February 2025, a team of more than ninety researchers published a paper in Nature describing something the photonic quantum computing community had been waiting a decade to see: a complete quantum photonic technology stack - single-photon sources, superconducting detectors, ultra-fast optical switches, and low-loss waveguides - fabricated on full-size silicon wafers at a commercial semiconductor foundry. The foundry was GlobalFoundries' Fab 8 in Malta, New York. The company behind the paper was PsiQuantum, a Palo Alto startup that had raised $1.7 billion on a single thesis: the only way to build a useful quantum computer is to build it the way the semiconductor industry builds everything else - by the thousand, on 300-millimeter wafers, in a factory that also makes chips for cell phones. Seven months later, PsiQuantum raised another billion dollars and broke ground on utility-scale quantum computing sites in Brisbane and Chicago. In Toronto, Xanadu unveiled Aurora - a 12-qubit system spread across four server racks, connected by 13 kilometers of fiber optic cable, that the company called the world's first universal photonic quantum computer. Xanadu then filed to go public through a $3.1 billion SPAC merger, positioning itself to become the first pure-play photonic quantum computing stock. In March 2026, it announced negotiations for up to CAD $390 million in Canadian and Ontario government support to establish domestic semiconductor and photonic manufacturing capabilities. These are not incremental developments. They are signals that the photonic quantum computing modality - long dismissed by skeptics as too lossy, too probabilistic, and too far from practical computation - is entering the industrial phase. And the supply chain it draws upon looks nothing like the supply chains behind superconducting or trapped-ion quantum computers. There are no dilution refrigerators cooled to millikelvin temperatures. No chains of barium atoms suspended in electromagnetic traps. No forest of precision laser beams converging on a vacuum chamber. Instead, there are semiconductor fabs. Photonic integrated circuits etched in silicon nitride. Superconducting nanowire detectors manufactured by the million on the same wafers as the photon sources. Barium titanate optical switches grown in the world's largest molecular beam epitaxy tool. And telecom-standard optical fiber - the same fiber that carries your internet traffic - linking quantum processors across server racks without a single frequency transduction step. The photonic quantum computing supply chain is, in many ways, the most radical proposition in the quantum industry: the bet that quantum computing's hardest problem, scaling, will be solved not by exotic physics, but by industrial manufacturing. If that bet pays off, the winners won't come from the quantum world at all. They'll come from the semiconductor and telecommunications industries that have been building photonic infrastructure for decades. This article maps the photonic quantum computing supply chain from foundry to photon detector, identifying the companies, bottlenecks, and strategic dynamics that will determine whether light becomes the dominant carrier of quantum information. As with our companion analyses of the superconducting and trapped-ion supply chains, the question is: if photonics wins, who else wins?

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> I just received a death threat over something called “quantum medbeds.” So let’s talk about medbeds.

- Published: 2025-10-01
- Modified: 2025-10-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-medbeds/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
I never write about current politics. This might be my first on this blog. In fact, for the sake of my own sanity, I’ve made a point of steering this blog and most of my day clear of politics and the daily chaos of partisan news. I prefer to focus on science and quantum tech. However, recent events have dragged me out of that apolitical cocoon. Why? Because, I just received a death threat over something called “quantum medbeds.” It appears that by running a company with “Quantum” in the name, and by politely ignoring some very strange inquiries about providing medbed technology, I’ve been deemed part of a grand conspiracy to withhold miraculous healing devices from humanity. Apparently, in one person’s mind, I am at the core of keeping “life-saving and limb-restoring technology” away from the people. So let’s talk about medbeds.

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> The U.S. Federal Reserve is sounding the alarm that future quantum computers could pose a serious threat to the security of cryptocurrencies

- Published: 2025-10-01
- Modified: 2025-11-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/fed-quantum-ledger/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, United States
The U.S. Federal Reserve is sounding the alarm that future quantum computers could pose a serious threat to the security of cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin. In a new study titled “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later,” Fed analysts warn that once sufficiently powerful quantum computers exist, they could decrypt historical Bitcoin transactions, potentially revealing years’ worth of users’ transaction histories that are currently hidden by cryptographic keys. The core issue highlighted is the “harvest now, decrypt later” (HNDL) attack strategy. Adversaries can intercept or copy encrypted data today - for instance, the encrypted components of Bitcoin transactions or any other data protected by standard encryption - and simply store it. Even though they can’t crack it now, they’re stockpiling it. Then, when a powerful quantum computer (someday) can break the cryptography (like the elliptic curve signatures used in Bitcoin), those adversaries can decrypt everything they’ve harvested, exposing information retroactively.

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> Trapped-ion quantum computers trade cryogenics for lasers, vacuum chambers, and precision optics. Here's who wins if trapped ions win

- Published: 2025-10-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/trapped-ion-quantum-ecosystem/
- Categories: Quantum Ecosystem
In September 2025, IonQ paid $1.075 billion for a company called Oxford Ionics that had built precisely one quantum computer. It wasn't the qubit count that justified the price tag. Oxford Ionics held fewer than two dozen qubits at the time. What IonQ bought was a method for getting rid of lasers. That may sound counterintuitive. Trapped-ion quantum computing is, at its core, a laser-and-atom business. Every trapped-ion system in commercial operation today - from Quantinuum's Helios to AQT's rack-mounted systems in Innsbruck - uses precisely tuned laser beams to cool, initialize, manipulate, and read out individual ions suspended in electromagnetic traps. The lasers are what make it work. They are also what makes it expensive, fragile, and extraordinarily difficult to scale. Oxford Ionics' Electronic Qubit Control (EQC) technology replaces laser-driven quantum gates with microwave signals delivered through electrodes built into semiconductor chips - fabricated by Infineon, one of the world's largest chipmakers. If it works at scale, it transforms the central supply chain challenge of trapped-ion quantum computing from an optics problem into a semiconductor manufacturing problem. The acquisition didn't just change IonQ's roadmap. It revealed a strategic bet about where the real bottleneck lies in the trapped-ion supply chain - and which industrial ecosystem will ultimately determine how fast this modality can grow. If you've read my analysis of the superconducting quantum supply chain, you know that the chandelier-shaped dilution refrigerator is the defining physical artifact of that modality - and its supply chain bottleneck. The equivalent artifact for trapped ions is the optical table: a massive, vibration-isolated surface covered in mirrors, lenses, beam splitters, acousto-optic modulators, and fiber couplings, all directing laser light of multiple wavelengths toward a vacuum chamber roughly the size of a football, inside which a handful of atoms hover in an electromagnetic field, performing calculations. The supply chains behind these two images could hardly be more different. Superconducting quantum computing draws from cryogenics, helium isotopes, and microwave electronics. Trapped-ion quantum computing draws from precision laser manufacturing, photonics, ultra-high vacuum technology, and, increasingly, standard semiconductor fabrication. The competitive dynamics, the key suppliers, the bottlenecks, and the geopolitical vulnerabilities are distinct. So is the investment thesis. This article maps the trapped-ion supply chain layer by layer: from the ions themselves to the lasers that control them, from the trap chips that confine them to the control electronics that orchestrate the system, and from the vacuum chambers that protect them to the photonic interconnects that may one day link thousands of modules together. At each layer, we identify the key players, the bottlenecks, and the strategic implications for investors, technology executives, and policymakers asking the same question we posed for superconducting: if trapped ions win, who else wins?

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> The superconducting quantum computer chandelier is beautiful, but it is a product of an industrial supply chain as much as it is a product of physics.

- Published: 2025-09-30
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ecosystem/superconducting-quantum-ecosystem/
- Categories: Quantum Ecosystem
In September 2025, Bluefors - the Finnish company whose cryogenic systems cool most of the world's superconducting quantum computers - signed a deal to buy up to ten thousand liters of helium-3 per year. The supplier? Interlune, a Seattle startup planning to mine the isotope from the surface of the Moon. The deal, running from 2028 to 2037, is worth contemplating not for its science-fiction optics, but for what it reveals about the state of the superconducting quantum computing supply chain. The world's dominant manufacturer of the refrigerators that make quantum computing possible is securing a decade-long supply agreement for a material so rare on Earth that it currently trades at several thousand dollars per liter - from a company that hasn't yet left the planet. It's a sign that someone who sees the demand curve for superconducting quantum systems up close believes the existing supply chain cannot support what's coming. If you're an investor evaluating the quantum computing landscape, you've probably assessed the major hardware companies - IBM, Google, Rigetti, IQM, QuantWare. You may have formed a view on which quantum computing modality is most likely to scale. But the deeper question, and the one that may ultimately determine where value accrues, is this: what does a superconducting quantum computer actually need to exist, and who provides it?

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> Cisco took on an ambitious full-stack strategy to make distributed quantum computing a reality sooner than many expect.

- Published: 2025-09-29
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/networking-quantum-computers-cisco/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Cisco took on an ambitious full-stack strategy to make distributed quantum computing a reality sooner than many expect. Instead of waiting for a single perfect quantum processor with millions of qubits, Cisco is building the hardware, software, and architecture needed to network today’s smaller quantum machines into unified quantum data centers. This approach mirrors how classical computing scaled - connecting many modest nodes to achieve supercomputing power - and could similarly accelerate quantum advantage.

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> The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), together with four major banks (DBS, HSBC, OCBC, UOB) and tech partners SPTel and SpeQtral...

- Published: 2025-09-29
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/mas-qkd-sandbox/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: ASEAN, Finance & Banking, Payments, Singapore
The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), together with four major banks (DBS, HSBC, OCBC, UOB) and tech partners SPTel and SpeQtral, has released a technical report detailing the results of a pioneering Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) sandbox in the financial sector. This proof-of-concept (PoC) sandbox was initiated under an August 2024 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to evaluate QKD’s viability for securing financial communications. The sandbox builds on MAS’s broader quantum-safe agenda - earlier, MAS had advised banks on quantum cyber risks (February 2024) and even ran a cross-border post-quantum cryptography trial with Banque de France in 2024. Now, with this QKD experiment completed, MAS and its partners are sharing key findings and recommendations, marking a significant step in practical quantum-safe cybersecurity.

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> A new experiment from quantum computing startup Alice & Bob has set a remarkable milestone. In a recent blog post titled...

- Published: 2025-09-26
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/alice-bobs-one-hour-cat-qubit/
- Categories: Research
A new experiment from quantum computing startup Alice & Bob has set a remarkable milestone. In a recent blog post titled”Just Out of the Lab: A Cat Qubit That Jumps Every Hour,” the company revealed that one of its qubits - a special”cat qubit” - remained stable against bit-flip errors for about one hour. This is a record for superconducting qubits, shattering the previous bit-flip stability mark of roughly 7 minutes achieved last year. It even far exceeds Alice & Bob’s own goal of 13 minutes that was planned for a 2030-era device. In other words, what wasn’t expected until the end of the decade has already been demonstrated in the lab today. This announcement, also shared via the company’s social media, has generated buzz in the quantum community. But why is a qubit lasting an hour so important, and what does it mean for the broader race toward practical quantum computers? In this article, we’ll break down the significance in plain terms and explore how this breakthrough could impact”Q-Day” - the day when quantum computers can crack modern encryption.

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> A team led by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has published a paper, “Quantum learning advantage on a scalable photonic platform”

- Published: 2025-09-26
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-learning-advantage/
- Categories: Research
A team led by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has published a milestone paper, “Quantum learning advantage on a scalable photonic platform,” in Science (Sept 25, 2025). Preprint arXiv:2502.07770. The work is the first proven quantum advantage using a photonic system, showing that an optical quantum setup can learn the behavior of a complex system exponentially faster than any classical method. In their experiment, an information-gathering task that would take a classical approach on the order of 20 million years was completed in about 15 minutes using entangled light. This dramatic 11.8-orders-of-magnitude speedup in learning time highlights the power of quantum entanglement for practical data-driven tasks and marks an important step forward for quantum technologies in sensing and machine learning.

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> A new fault-tolerance framework unveiled by researchers from QuEra, Harvard, and Yale promises to drastically reduce the time overhead...

- Published: 2025-09-25
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/algorithmic-fault-tolerance/
- Categories: Research
A new fault-tolerance framework unveiled by researchers from QuEra, Harvard, and Yale promises to drastically reduce the time overhead of quantum error correction. Published yesterday in Nature as “Low‑Overhead Transversal Fault Tolerance for Universal Quantum Computation” (Zhou et al., 2025), their method - called Transversal Algorithmic Fault Tolerance (AFT) - eliminates the usual slowdown from repeated error-checking cycles. By cutting this overhead by an order of magnitude, the breakthrough could accelerate the arrival of cryptanalytically relevant quantum computers (CRQCs) capable of breaking classical encryption. In short, quantum algorithms (like Shor’s factoring) might run 10-100× faster under this scheme, shrinking the timeline for when today’s cryptography could be at risk.

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> Financial industry CISOs have a new playbook for the post-quantum era. FS-ISAC has published a position paper titled...

- Published: 2025-09-25
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/fs-isac-pqc-migration/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
Financial industry CISOs have a new playbook for the post-quantum era. The Financial Services Information Sharing and Analysis Center (FS-ISAC) has published a position paper titled “The Timeline for Post-Quantum Cryptographic Migration,” offering a detailed roadmap for the financial sector’s transition to quantum-resistant security. The paper lays out why banks and financial institutions must act now to avoid falling behind in the race against quantum threats.

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> The race toward large-scale quantum computing just hit a significant milestone. In a new Nature paper “Industry‑compatible silicon spin‑qubit...

- Published: 2025-09-25
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-spin-qubits-fabrication/
- Categories: Research
The race toward large-scale quantum computing just hit a significant milestone. In a new Nature paper “Industry‑compatible silicon spin‑qubit unit cells exceeding 99% fidelity” (open access) a team from Diraq and imec reported that they achieved better than 99% gate fidelity for silicon spin qubits manufactured using standard 300 mm semiconductor fabrication processes. Crucially, this wasn’t a one-off demonstration: four separate two-qubit devices on the same silicon wafer all showed error rates below 1% for every fundamental operation, including single-qubit and two-qubit gates. Even state preparation and measurement (SPAM) were exceptionally reliable, with three devices exceeding 99.9% readout fidelity. These results mark the first time silicon qubit “unit cells” built in an industry-compatible CMOS foundry have hit the kind of fidelity benchmarks long seen as necessary for fault-tolerant quantum computers.

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> HSBC and IBM revealed the world’s first-known quantum-enabled algorithmic trading trial in the bond market...

- Published: 2025-09-25
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/hsbc-ibm-quantum-advantage/
- Categories: Research, Industry
- Tags: Finance & Banking
HSBC and IBM revealed the world’s first-known quantum-enabled algorithmic trading trial in the bond market. In a collaboration bridging banking and cutting-edge tech, the team demonstrated up to a 34% improvement in predicting whether a customer’s bond trade would go through at a quoted price - a significant leap over standard classical methods. The news, trumpeted in a joint press release and echoed on social media, quickly made waves in both finance and quantum computing circles. IBM’s research division posted that HSBC used an IBM Quantum Heron processor to achieve “up to a 34% improvement in trade-fill prediction over classical-only methods,” heralding this as the first empirical evidence of quantum computing’s potential to enhance algorithmic trading.

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> In a new quantum computing milestone, Caltech physicists have created the largest qubit array ever assembled: 6,100 atomic qubits...

- Published: 2025-09-24
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/caltechs-6100-qubit/
- Categories: Research
In a new quantum computing milestone, Caltech physicists have created the largest qubit array ever assembled: 6,100 atomic qubits held in place by laser “tweezers.” This far exceeds previous neutral-atom arrays, which contained only hundreds of qubits. Even more impressive, these thousands of qubits were kept in a fragile quantum state (superposition) for about 13 seconds - nearly ten times longer than prior systems. Equally crucial, the team could manipulate individual qubits with 99.98% accuracy, showing that scaling up didn’t come at the expense of quality. Published in Nature on September 24, 2025, this achievement demonstrates a viable path toward the error-corrected quantum computers scientists have long envisioned. Quantum computers will likely require hundreds of thousands of qubits because qubits are notoriously fragile and need redundancy for error correction. Caltech’s breakthrough - combining record quantity and quality in qubits - is a significant step toward that goal.

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> Preparing a large telecom (or any enterprise) for the post-quantum cryptography era is a massive, multi-faceted undertaking, but it is achievable...

- Published: 2025-09-23
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-telco/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Telecommunications
Preparing a large telecom (or any enterprise) for the post-quantum cryptography era is a massive, multi-faceted undertaking, but it is achievable with foresight, resources, and commitment. We’ve seen that it involves much more than just installing new algorithms - it’s about transforming an organization’s approach to cryptography across potentially thousands of applications and devices, under uncertain timelines and in coordination with many external players. In all likelihood, this quantum-readiness program will be one of the most complex IT/security projects the organization has ever executed, comparable to - or even exceeding - major transformations like the rollout of a new network generation or a large merger integration. The program spans technology, process, and people: from the nuts-and-bolts of lattice-based encryption performance, to policy-setting and vendor negotiations, to overcoming human resistance and silos.

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> The Executive Office of the President (Office of Management and Budget and Office of Science and Technology Policy) issued a memorandum...

- Published: 2025-09-23
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/white-house-fy2027-rd-memo/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: United States
The Executive Office of the President (Office of Management and Budget and Office of Science and Technology Policy) issued a memorandum (M-25-34, NSTM-2) outlining the Administration’s Research and Development Budget Priorities for Fiscal Year 2027. This annual memo guides Federal agencies as they plan R&D investments for the upcoming budget cycle. The FY2027 memo realigns U.S. research efforts toward a core mission: drive economic growth, improve quality of life, and ensure American leadership in critical technology sectors. It emphasizes “critical and emerging technologies” – notably placing quantum science and artificial intelligence (AI) at the top of the agenda. In tandem with these frontier areas, the memo ties R&D priorities to national goals in energy, security, health, and space, reflecting a broad strategy to leverage science for both innovation and strategic advantage.

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> The Australian Cyber Security Centre (ACSC) has published updated guidance titled “Planning for Post-Quantum Cryptography.”

- Published: 2025-09-22
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/acscs-post-quantum/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: Australia
The Australian Cyber Security Centre (ACSC) - via the Australian Signals Directorate (ASD) - has published updated guidance titled “Planning for Post-Quantum Cryptography.” This publication underscores the looming threat that cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQCs) will pose to current encryption. ACSC warns that once quantum machines mature, they could break today’s public-key algorithms (like RSA and ECC), endangering the confidentiality and integrity of sensitive data. In response, the guidance urges organizations to start preparing now for a transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) - new cryptographic algorithms designed to resist quantum attacks. Early action is crucial, ACSC notes, because “deploying protections against a CRQC may take longer than expected” and the timeline for a usable quantum computer is uncertain. Additionally, adversaries might “harvest now, decrypt later,” stockpiling encrypted data today to decrypt once quantum capabilities arrive.

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> NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project

- Published: 2025-09-21
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-sp-800-227/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project: "Mappings of Migration to PQC Project Capabilities to NIST Cybersecurity Framework 2.0 and to Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations."

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> NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project

- Published: 2025-09-20
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-cswp-48-ipd/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project: "Mappings of Migration to PQC Project Capabilities to NIST Cybersecurity Framework 2.0 and to Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations."

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> A team led by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has published a paper, “Quantum learning advantage on a scalable photonic platform”

- Published: 2025-09-16
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/harvard-mit-continuous-3000-qubit/
- Categories: Research
A team led by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) has published a milestone paper, “Quantum learning advantage on a scalable photonic platform,” in Science (Sept 25, 2025). Preprint arXiv:2502.07770. The work is the first proven quantum advantage using a photonic system, showing that an optical quantum setup can learn the behavior of a complex system exponentially faster than any classical method. In their experiment, an information-gathering task that would take a classical approach on the order of 20 million years was completed in about 15 minutes using entangled light. This dramatic 11.8-orders-of-magnitude speedup in learning time highlights the power of quantum entanglement for practical data-driven tasks and marks an important step forward for quantum technologies in sensing and machine learning.

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> Quantum Systems Integration (QSI) and Quantum Open Architecture (QOA) - from monolith to modular. Quantum Computing's PC Revolution

- Published: 2025-09-15
- Modified: 2026-04-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-security-pqc/factoring-rsa-2048-42-qubits/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
We present a resource estimate for factoring 2048-bit RSA integers using a quantum computer with just
42 physical qubits and a runtime of approximately 20 minutes. Our approach combines well-established
results from the recent literature: Regev's O(n3/2) quantum factoring algorithm , asymptotically
optimal qLDPC codes at their proven constant encoding rate , magic state cultivation at projected
efficiency , demonstrated multi-hour coherence times in rare-earth ion memories , and all-to-all
qubit connectivity as available on reconfigurable atomic platforms . Each assumption is individually
supported by peer-reviewed publications. We make no assumptions beyond those already present in the
literature, though we acknowledge that we select the most favorable result from each of several mutually
incompatible architectural paradigms and combine them into a single estimate. Our methodology
extends the pioneering work of Yan et al. , who demonstrated in 2023 that sufficiently creative
assumptions can yield arbitrarily low resource estimates. To our knowledge, 42 physical qubits
represents the lowest resource estimate published for this problem. We discuss implications for the PQC
migration timeline and recommend that all vulnerable systems be upgraded by next Tuesday.

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> A new research paper titled “Electrically triggered spin-photon devices in silicon” has been published in Nature Photonics

- Published: 2025-09-13
- Modified: 2025-11-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/spin-photon-silicon/
- Categories: Research
A new research paper titled “Electrically triggered spin-photon devices in silicon” has been published in Nature Photonics on September 11, 2025. In this paper, a team from Simon Fraser University (SFU) and quantum startup Photonic Inc. report the first-ever electrically injected single-photon source built on a silicon chip. This breakthrough marks an important step toward scalable quantum computing hardware, as it shows that silicon-based qubit devices can be controlled not only with laser light but also with standard electrical signals. The achievement addresses a key challenge in quantum tech by integrating quantum light sources and spin qubits into mainstream semiconductor technology.

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> Whether you personally believe Q-Day will come in 5 years or 50, the world around you isn’t taking chances - and neither can you.

- Published: 2025-09-13
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-deadlines-set/
- Categories: Q-Day, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
Whether you personally believe Q-Day will come in 5 years or 50, the world around you isn’t taking chances - and neither can you. As a CISO, you’re now being implicitly (and sometimes explicitly) told by every corner of your ecosystem that quantum preparedness is mandatory. Regulators demand it via hard deadlines. Key clients and partners demand it in contracts and RFPs. Insurers will soon demand it as a condition of coverage. Investors and boards demand it as part of prudent risk management.

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> Just a few days ago Waaijer and van Neerven published a paper "A Relational Critique of Bell Locality" in which they analyze Bell experiments...

- Published: 2025-09-13
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/relational-critique-bell-locality/
- Categories: Research
Just a few days ago Waaijer and van Neerven published a paper "A Relational Critique of Bell Locality" in which they analyze Bell experiments through the lens of relational quantum mechanics (RQM). For decades, Bell's theorem has been seen as proof that nature is fundamentally nonlocal. Any theory that respects relativity and allows free choice of measurements must obey the CHSH inequality (S ≤ 2). Quantum mechanics predicts - and experiments confirm - violations (S > 2). The conclusion seemed inescapable: reality is not locally causal. This new paper argues this conclusion is a mistake. The authors claim the apparent nonlocality stems from misapplying relativistic principles.

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> A team of researchers from the University of Texas at Austin and Quantinuum has achieved a landmark result in quantum computing

- Published: 2025-09-12
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-information-supremacy/
- Categories: Research
A team of researchers from the University of Texas at Austin and Quantinuum has achieved a landmark result in quantum computing. Just published in Kretschmer et al., “Demonstrating an Unconditional Separation Between Quantum and Classical Information Resources,” arXiv preprint (Sep 2025). They demonstrated a computational task on a 12-qubit trapped-ion quantum system that no classical computer can emulate without using at least 62 bits of memory. This represents the first unconditional quantum advantage ever shown experimentally - a breakthrough the authors term "quantum information supremacy." Unlike prior claims of quantum supremacy, which relied on conjectures about classical complexity, this result comes with a provable guarantee: no future clever algorithm or hardware improvement can close the quantum-classical gap for this task. In short, it’s permanent proof that current quantum hardware can access information-processing resources that classical systems fundamentally cannot.

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> 60+ quantum hardware companies compared: modalities, roadmaps, funding, and CRQC relevance. The patterns that emerge across the landscape

- Published: 2025-09-11
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-computing-companies-roadmaps/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
What do 60+ quantum hardware roadmaps tell us when you read them together instead of one at a time? This capstone article synthesizes the quantum computing company landscape into strategic insight: which modalities have the most commercial momentum, where the industry's centre of gravity sits geographically, how roadmap promises compare to demonstrated milestones, and what all of this means for the timeline to fault-tolerant and eventually cryptographically relevant quantum computing. Superconducting qubits dominate in funding but the field is diversifying fast. Roadmaps are converging on late-2020s fault-tolerance demonstrations. The gap between promise and reality is shrinking. And a structural divide is emerging between vertically integrated full-stack builders and modular component specialists — a divide that maps directly to the Quantum Open Architecture thesis. The companion database provides a searchable, filterable reference for every company, profiled with their modality, scale, roadmap, funding, and CRQC relevance. The individual company articles go deeper on each player. This article provides the cross-cutting patterns that only become visible when you look at the landscape as a whole.

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> The “Brace for Impact” ECDLP challenge suite is a great attempt to translate a looming cryptographic crisis into a concrete set of problems...

- Published: 2025-09-05
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/ecdlp-challenge-ladder/
- Categories: Research, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking
The “Brace for Impact” ECDLP challenge suite is a great attempt to translate a looming cryptographic crisis into a concrete set of problems we can grapple with today. It provides a much-needed “ruler” to measure where we stand in the race between encryption and quantum decryption. The choice of Bitcoin’s secp256k1 curve for these challenges ties the abstract math to real economic stakes, lending a sense of urgency (and opportunity) to everyone from Bitcoin developers to national security planners. Most importantly, it empowers the community with an actionable early warning system: as soon as a quantum computer ticks up the ladder, we will know, undeniably, that the time has come to brace for impact and switch our cryptography to higher ground.

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> Don’t mistake the noise of cynicism for the signal of intelligence. If someone validates themselves as a useless cynic - unwilling to provide...

- Published: 2025-09-01
- Modified: 2025-09-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cynicism/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Don’t mistake the noise of cynicism for the signal of intelligence. If someone validates themselves as a useless cynic - unwilling to provide anything beyond scoffs and derision - don’t waste your energy getting dragged into their performative pessimism. Instead, direct your attention to the genuine skeptics and curious contrarians who challenge ideas in good faith. Engage with those asking hard questions and with the enthusiasts pursuing big dreams (but grounding them in data). Those are the debates worth having. The field of quantum computing is built on the terrifyingly difficult work of bending reality to our will, one qubit at a time. That work deserves better than a cynical sneer. It deserves genuine, rigorous, and yes - critical - intelligence.

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> One of the laziest talking points in quantum security is that quantum computing has “gone nowhere” because people still talk about factoring 15..

- Published: 2025-08-31
- Modified: 2026-03-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computer-factored-question/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
One of the laziest talking points in quantum security is that quantum computing has “gone nowhere” because people still talk about factoring 15. That confuses an early proof-of-concept with the real engineering path to a cryptographically relevant quantum computer. The 2001 Nature experiment explicitly described factoring 15 as the “simplest instance” of Shor’s algorithm, and later analysis showed that compiled factoring demos can depend more on how aggressively the circuit was simplified than on the size of the number itself. If you want the full technical version, I unpack that in my CRQC Quantum Capability Framework. That framework breaks the problem into nine interdependent capabilities across foundational, logical-gate, and system layers, then compresses them into three executive levers: Logical Qubit Capacity, Logical Operations Budget, and Quantum Operations Throughput.

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> A new peer-reviewed study - “Mapping quantum industry demands to education: a critical analysis of skills, qualifications, and modalities”

- Published: 2025-08-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/mapping-quantum-industry-education/
- Categories: Industry
A new peer-reviewed study - “Mapping quantum industry demands to education: a critical analysis of skills, qualifications, and modalities,” by Devendrababu et al. has just been published in EPJ Quantum Technology (2025). The paper takes a data-driven look at what the quantum technology job market is really asking for in terms of skills, academic degrees, and training pathways. Covering a broad range of quantum domains from hardware (superconducting, semiconducting, topological, ion-trap, photonic, and more) to software (quantum machine learning, cryptography, error correction) and even emerging areas like quantum sensing and metrology, the study aims to inform how educational programs can better prepare students for careers in quantum technologies.

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> Japan has officially switched on its first quantum computer built entirely with homegrown technology. The new superconducting system...

- Published: 2025-08-29
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/japan-homegrown-quantum-computer/
- Categories: Industry, Policy & Sovereignty, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: Japan
Japan has officially switched on its first quantum computer built entirely with homegrown technology. The new superconducting system went live on July 28, 2025 at Osaka University’s Center for Quantum Information and Quantum Biology (QIQB) - a landmark achievement that makes Japan one of the few countries to develop a quantum computer without foreign components. University representatives confirmed that all previously imported hardware has been replaced with domestic alternatives, and the machine runs on a Japan-developed open-source software stack called OQTOPUS. In other words, every critical piece of this quantum computing stack - from the cryogenic refrigerator to the control electronics and the quantum chip itself - was designed and built in Japan. This fully domestically produced quantum computer uses superconducting qubits housed in a specialized cryogenic setup. The quantum processing unit (QPU) was developed by the RIKEN research institute, leveraging Japan’s deep expertise in superconducting electronics. Achieving complete self-reliance meant rebuilding hardware that is usually sourced from a handful of specialized suppliers abroad. Notably, the team succeeded in manufacturing a key component - the ultra-cold dilution refrigerator that keeps the qubits at near absolute zero - within Japan for the first time. (Dilution refrigerators are often imported from overseas; building one domestically is a major feat in cryogenic engineering.) The project was a broad national collaboration spearheaded by QIQB in partnership with RIKEN and leading Japanese companies like ULVAC (a vacuum and cryogenics firm) and computing giant Fujitsu, among others. Backed by government funding, the effort demonstrates Japan’s capacity to design, manufacture, and integrate a complete quantum system on its own soil.

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> In my opinion, forward-thinking organizations should consider creating a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO) role.

- Published: 2025-08-24
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-quantum-officer-cqo/
- Categories: Leadership, Quantum Computing
In my opinion, forward-thinking organizations should consider creating a Chief Quantum Officer (CQO) role. Much like those historical electricity executives, a CQO would spearhead the adoption of a disruptive technology that is revolutionary, promising - but widely misunderstood. It’s a provocative idea (even “a job title from Star Trek,” as one commentator quipped ), but it’s quickly moving from speculation to reality. A few bold companies have already appointed CQOs, signaling that quantum tech is becoming a strategic priority, not just a research experiment. I’m personally bullish on quantum’s potential, and while I expect quantum computing to become commoditized in the coming decades (eventually making a CQO as obsolete as the Chief Electricity Officer), I believe that for the next several years a dedicated quantum leader could be invaluable. Here’s why.

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> Magic states are special quantum states that enable the universal operations needed for any quantum algorithm, yet which are not themselves...

- Published: 2025-08-20
- Modified: 2025-10-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/magic-states/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Magic states are special quantum states that enable the universal operations needed for any quantum algorithm, yet which are not themselves easy to produce or protect. In essence, magic states supply the "extra quantum sauce" that elevates a protected quantum computer from what could be emulated on a classical computer to a machine that can outperform classical supercomputers. Recent breakthroughs - from theory and small-scale demonstrations to first experiments on logical (error-corrected) qubits - have shown significant progress in producing and utilizing magic states.

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> Modern quantum key distribution (QKD) has always carried a slightly uncomfortable subtext: the math may be information-theoretic...

- Published: 2025-08-20
- Modified: 2026-02-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/device-independent-qkd-di-qkd/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Modern quantum key distribution (QKD) has always carried a slightly uncomfortable subtext: the math may be information-theoretic, but the box on the rack is engineered. And engineered systems fail in messy, non-theoretical ways. That gap - between "provably secure on paper" and "secure in a live network with real detectors, lasers, firmware, calibration routines, and supply chains" - is exactly the space that device-independent QKD (DI‑QKD) is designed to collapse. If you've followed my previous writing of next-generation QKD protocols, you've already seen DI‑QKD mentioned as the far edge of the roadmap: the "ultimate" version of QKD that doesn't quietly assume your hardware behaves as modelled. That article framed it succinctly: DI‑QKD aims to deliver security even if the devices are untrusted or outright malicious, by leaning on observed quantum statistics rather than detailed device characterisation. The academic community says the same thing, but with less diplomacy. A comprehensive review in npj Quantum Information calls DI‑QKD the "gold standard" of quantum key distribution, precisely because it relaxes the need to physically model devices - and therefore rules out broad categories of "quantum hacking" that exploit implementation loopholes rather than breaking the underlying cryptography. So DI‑QKD exists for a very cybersecurity-flavoured reason: the strongest attacks against real QKD deployments are often not "Eve intercepts photons and is detected," but "Eve exploits the detector," "Eve exploits calibration," "Eve exploits hidden degrees of freedom," or "Eve exploits the vendor." The literature is full of concrete examples where detector behaviour can be manipulated in ways that, under certain conditions, fundamentally compromise the security assumptions that the device model is built on. DI‑QKD's pitch is radical and clean: stop trusting the internal description of the devices; trust only what can be certified from the input–output statistics. And this is a fascinating topics. So let's dig into it.

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> China's Jiuzhang 4.0 photonic processor detects 3,050 photons in 25.6 microseconds, defeating the classical MPS algorithm...

- Published: 2025-08-15
- Modified: 2026-04-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-4-0/
- Categories: Industry, Research
- Tags: China
15 Aug 2025 - A research team led by Pan Jianwei and Lu Chao-Yang at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), in collaboration with Tsinghua University and Jiuzhang Quantum Technology Co. Ltd., has demonstrated the largest photonic quantum advantage experiment ever conducted. Their new processor, Jiuzhang 4.0, injected 1,024 high-efficiency squeezed states of light into a programmable 8,176-mode photonic circuit and detected up to 3,050 photons in a single run - more than ten times the 255 photons achieved by its predecessor, Jiuzhang 3.0, just two years ago. The results, posted as a pre-print on arXiv on August 12, 2025, establish what the researchers call a "robust and overwhelming" quantum computational advantage. The Jiuzhang 4.0 processor generates a single Gaussian boson sampling (GBS) output in 25.6 microseconds. To reproduce the same result using the most advanced classical algorithm (the matrix product state (MPS) method) running on El Capitan, currently the world's most powerful supercomputer, would take more than 10⁴² years. For perspective, the universe is roughly 1.4 × 10¹⁰ years old. The classical computation would require roughly 10³² times the age of the universe. Why this result matters now The timing is not coincidental. This experiment was built to answer a specific threat. In 2024, a team led by Changhun Oh and Liang Jiang published a paper in Nature Physics demonstrating that matrix product state methods could exploit photon loss — the biggest weakness of photonic quantum computers — to efficiently simulate earlier GBS experiments classically. Their algorithm essentially showed that when photons get lost during computation (as they inevitably do in any optical system), the remaining quantum state loses entanglement, and a classical computer can track what's left using tensor networks. The implication was stark: the quantum advantage demonstrated by earlier Jiuzhang experiments, and by Xanadu's Borealis, might not survive better classical algorithms. This was not a theoretical worry. The MPS approach worked. It could simulate configurations matching earlier experiments in feasible time on existing supercomputers. For a moment, the entire photonic quantum advantage paradigm was under serious pressure. Jiuzhang 4.0 is the direct experimental response.

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> Early Shor demos were proofs of control, not the real scoreboard. The path to a cryptographically relevant quantum computer runs through

- Published: 2025-08-13
- Modified: 2026-03-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-factored-only-15-21/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Early Shor demos were proofs of control, not the real scoreboard. The path to a cryptographically relevant quantum computer runs through error correction, logical qubits, and fault tolerance - not through a neat sequence of ever-larger classroom factorizations. One of the most persistent anti-quantum talking points goes like this: “After 25 years, quantum computers still haven’t factored anything bigger than 15, so the field clearly hasn’t progressed.” It sounds devastating. It is also a badly chosen metric - and, strictly speaking, not even quite right as trivia. The landmark 2001 Nature experiment implemented the simplest instance of Shor’s algorithm for N=15, and a later compiled photonic experiment reported factoring N=21. But whether the demo integer was 15 or 21 is almost beside the point. The real issue is that factoring 15 was never meant to be the summit of the field. In the 2001 experiment, Lieven Vandersypen and colleagues used seven spin-1/2 nuclei to implement the simplest instance of Shor’s algorithm. The authors themselves were clear about what mattered: not “we have started a smooth march toward RSA-2048 by increasing the toy number,” but that they had demonstrated precise control and modeling of a small quantum system. They also explicitly noted that scalability was not implied by that result.

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> Thesis: Migration time to safer cryptography is inversely proportional to an organization’s crypto-agility.

- Published: 2025-08-13
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/marins-law-crypto-agility/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Thesis: Migration time to safer cryptography is inversely proportional to an organization’s crypto-agility. Formally: Let A denote an organization’s crypto-agility (0 ≤ A ≤ 1) and Y the wall-clock time required to replace a cryptographic primitive across all in-scope systems. Then Y ≈ K ⁄ A for some complexity constant K. As A → 0, Y → ∞. Corollary: Raising A today shortens all future cryptographic migrations - for quantum threats and for classical breaks, policy shifts, or performance needs. This is the practical twin to Mosca’s inequality. Where Mosca tells you why time is short, my "law" tells you what to build so time bends in your favor: agility.

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> Export controls have emerged as a main lever to throttle or channel the flow of quantum know-how and equipment, effectively drawing new borders

- Published: 2025-08-13
- Modified: 2026-02-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-export-controls/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty, Quantum Policies
Export controls have emerged as a main lever to throttle or channel the flow of quantum know-how and equipment, effectively drawing new borders through the global R&D ecosystem. Quantum sovereignty, in other words, isn’t just about spending more on R&D; it’s about enforcing boundaries on that R&D. The U.S. has led the charge by expanding export restrictions on advanced quantum technologies in the name of national security. In late 2024, the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) rolled out the first comprehensive export controls on quantum computing items – worldwide license requirements on quantum computers and their key components, materials, software, and technology. Complete quantum computers that exceed certain performance specs can no longer be exported without a license. At the same time, U.S. authorities tightened controls on the “deemed export” of quantum technology, meaning the transfer of know-how to foreign nationals inside the country is treated as an export in itself. Other major powers have responded in kind: China, for instance, has tightened its own rules on critical raw materials (like specialized semiconductor inputs) in apparent retaliation, and is surely considering how to shield its nascent quantum industry. Caught in the middle, Europe faces pressure to coordinate with the U.S. approach, even as EU member states debate how far to go in restricting trade and research ties.

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> A new research paper from quantum startup Alice & Bob in collaboration with Inria unveils a technique to significantly reduce the cost of magic state

- Published: 2025-08-12
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/alice-bobs-magic-state-paper/
- Categories: Research, Industry
- Tags: Europe, France
A new research paper from quantum startup Alice & Bob in collaboration with Inria unveils a technique to significantly reduce the cost of magic state generation - a crucial resource for universal fault-tolerant quantum computing. The paper, titled “Unfolded distillation: very low-cost magic state preparation for biased-noise qubits”, describes an error-correction scheme dubbed the “unfolded code” that leverages the unique properties of noise-biased cat qubits. By exploiting the naturally high bias of cat qubits against bit-flip errors, the researchers “unfold” a complex 3D distillation code into a simpler 2D layout.

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> I will try and compare my proposed CRQC Readiness Benchmark with QTT, highlighting fundamental differences in methodology, assumptions...

- Published: 2025-08-10
- Modified: 2025-10-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark-vs-qtt/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
I will try and compare my proposed CRQC Readiness Benchmark with QTT, highlighting fundamental differences in methodology, assumptions, and philosophy, all in an effort to clarify how each approach informs our understanding of the looming “Q-Day.” The goal is to articulate why my benchmark and QTT produce different outlooks (2030s vs. 2050s for RSA-2048), and how both can be used together to guide post-quantum readiness.

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> For three decades, Q-Day has been “just a few years away.” I want to show you how to make your own prediction on when Q-Day will arrive.

- Published: 2025-08-10
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/how-to-predict-q-day/
- Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
For three decades, Q-Day has been “just a few years away.” I want to show you how to make your own informed prediction on when Q-Day will arrive. Counting physical qubits by itself is misleading. To break RSA you need error‑corrected logical qubits, long and reliable operation depth, and enough throughput to finish within an attack‑relevant time window.

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> The trouble with quantum computing predictions so far has been that too many have been more speculation than science...

- Published: 2025-08-04
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-predictions/
- Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
The trouble with quantum computing predictions so far has been that too many have been more speculation than science, more influenced by bias than by balanced analysis. We have the tools and knowledge to do better. By embracing a data-driven, scenario-based approach, we can turn timeline forecasting from a source of confusion into a valuable planning aid.

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> The Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) is a newly released open-source tool by Cambridge Consultants and the University of Edinburgh...

- Published: 2025-08-03
- Modified: 2025-10-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/qtt-criticism/
- Categories: Q-Day
The Quantum Threat Tracker (QTT) is a newly released open-source tool by Cambridge Consultants and the University of Edinburgh that aims to forecast when quantum computers will break today’s encryption. It combines quantum resource estimation (using optimized variants of Shor’s algorithm) with hardware development roadmaps to predict when cryptographic protocols will be broken. In other words, QTT estimates how many qubits and runtime are needed to crack something like RSA, then projects forward based on how quickly quantum hardware might improve. This is a much-needed tool – it translates complex research into an interactive format for security planners. I have no criticism of the tool or its authors; in fact, I think QTT is a great resource that could become very useful for the community. However, I do disagree with its default assumptions and demo scenario, which paint an arguably overly conservative timeline for the “Q-Day” when encryption like RSA-2048 falls.

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> To the untrained eye, espionage against scientists can be nearly invisible - it blends into everyday academic or business activity. Certain red flags...

- Published: 2025-08-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/espionage-quantum/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Sovereignty
To the untrained eye, espionage against scientists can be nearly invisible - it blends into everyday academic or business activity. But certain red flags and tactics surface again and again. Below is a consolidated list of common espionage methods (many from my own firsthand cases) used to target quantum tech researchers and organizations:

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> IBM has rolled out Heron r3, a new revision of its Heron processor family, debuting on the IBM Quantum Platform as ibm_pittsburgh in late July 2025.

- Published: 2025-08-01
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r3-pittsburgh/
- Categories: Industry
IBM has rolled out Heron r3, a new revision of its Heron processor family, debuting on the IBM Quantum Platform as ibm_pittsburgh in late July 2025. The headline change is quality, not scale: r3 keeps the 156‑qubit heavy‑hex design introduced with Heron r2, but IBM says targeted manufacturing improvements boost coherence, gate fidelity, and readout, including an ~350 µs T2 figure highlighted in the launch note. Strategically, r3 reinforces IBM’s “iterate fast on physical‑qubit quality” approach as it targets quantum advantage by end‑2026 and a fault‑tolerant Starling system by 2029. What IBM announced In an IBM Quantum Platform product update, IBM announced ibm_pittsburgh, the first system powered by Heron Revision 3 (r3), hosted at its Poughkeepsie quantum datacenter. IBM positioned r3 as an engineering refinement rather than an architectural reboot, attributing the gains to “targeted improvements” that affect coherence, gate fidelity, and readout performance - and calling out an “industry-leading” ~350 µs T2 coherence (T1 was not specified in the announcement).

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> On July 31, 2025, U.S. Senators Peters (D-Mich.) and Blackburn (R-Tenn.) introduced the National Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Strategy Act

- Published: 2025-07-31
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/quantum-cybersecurity-migration-act/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
On July 31, 2025, U.S. Senators Gary Peters (D-Mich.) and Marsha Blackburn (R-Tenn.) introduced the National Quantum Cybersecurity Migration Strategy Act, a bipartisan bill to ensure the federal government prepares for encryption-breaking quantum computers. The legislation directs a White House office (leveraging the NSTC’s ESIX subcommittee) to develop a comprehensive national strategy for post-quantum cybersecurity, and it mandates that federal agencies kick off pilot programs deploying quantum-safe encryption. The goal is to get ahead of “rapidly advancing quantum computers” that could one day bypass modern encryption and leave sensitive data exposed.

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> If the quantum processor is the brain of a quantum computer, the control system is its nervous system - the intricate wiring that converts intention...

- Published: 2025-07-31
- Modified: 2026-03-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/dive-quantum-control-systems/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Systems Integration
In July 2025, Keysight Technologies shipped a piece of equipment to a research institute in Tsukuba, Japan, that most people outside the quantum industry had never heard of - yet without it, the 1,000-qubit quantum computer it was destined for would have been little more than an extraordinarily expensive refrigerator. The device was a quantum control system: a dense rack of electronics designed to translate human-readable quantum programs into the precisely timed electromagnetic pulses that manipulate individual qubits. It was, at the time, the largest such system ever commercially delivered. That milestone tells a story the quantum computing industry has been slow to acknowledge. For years, the public narrative has centered on qubit counts, error rates, and algorithmic breakthroughs - the glamorous physics of the quantum processor itself. But between the quantum program written by a developer and the fragile quantum states dancing inside a dilution refrigerator or vacuum chamber, there sits a vast classical infrastructure that most roadmap presentations gloss over entirely. This is the domain of the quantum control system (QCS): the layer that generates, times, shapes, and measures the signals that make quantum computation physically happen. If the quantum processor is the brain of a quantum computer, the control system is its nervous system - the intricate wiring that converts intention into action and sensation into data. And as quantum computers scale from tens of qubits toward the thousands and millions needed for fault-tolerant computation, the control system is rapidly emerging as the most critical engineering bottleneck in the entire stack.

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> Quantum sensing technologies are emerging as powerful tools to detect and track UASs, including small and nano-drones that often...

- Published: 2025-07-31
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-ai-drones/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing, AI Security
- Tags: Government & Defense
Quantum sensing technologies are emerging as powerful tools to detect and track UASs, including small and nano-drones that often evade conventional sensors. These quantum sensors, such as quantum radars, quantum LiDARs, atomic magnetometers, and Rydberg RF detectors, exploit phenomena like entanglement, squeezing, and extreme sensitivity of quantum states to reveal faint drone signatures beyond classical limits. However, raw data from both quantum and classical sensors can be weak, noisy, or ambiguous, especially when dealing with tiny drones with low radar cross-sections (~0.01 m²) and minimal emissions. This is where artificial intelligence (AI) becomes indispensable. Modern AI algorithms (deep neural networks, signal classifiers, data fusion models, etc.) play a critical role in processing, interpreting, and enhancing sensor signals, effectively translating subtle quantum-sensor readings into reliable drone detections.

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> From a CISO and business leadership perspective, the ask is clear: we need to secure budget and resources now to begin the multi-year journey...

- Published: 2025-07-30
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/securing-quantum-readiness-budget/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
From a CISO and business leadership perspective, the ask is clear: we need to secure budget and resources now to begin the multi-year journey of quantum-proofing our organization. This includes funding for risk assessments, cryptographic inventory tools, new encryption software/hardware, staff training or hiring, and pilot projects to start integrating PQC. The investment is justified not only by the avoidance of a potentially catastrophic future breach, but by the immediate gains in cyber hygiene, compliance readiness, and competitive positioning that we’ve outlined. In an urgent, risk-based approach, starting early is the only viable strategy - it spreads out costs, reduces uncertainty, and ensures we won’t be caught unprepared

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> AI is reshaping businesses across industries, and corporate boards are increasingly expected to oversee AI strategy, ethics, and risk management

- Published: 2025-07-29
- Modified: 2025-10-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/ai-board-oversight/
- Categories: Leadership, AI Security
AI is reshaping businesses across industries, and corporate boards are increasingly expected to oversee AI strategy, ethics, and risk management. In fact, the number of S&P 500 companies formally assigning AI oversight to a board committee more than tripled in 2025, and nearly half of Fortune 100 companies now highlight AI expertise in their directors’ qualifications. This surge underlines an urgent need for governance frameworks that keep pace with AI-driven innovation. Boards can no longer afford to treat AI as just an IT issue; it has become a strategic imperative - one that demands informed oversight at the highest level.

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> Turning strategic alignment into real technological capability requires deliberate mechanisms at the alliance level.

- Published: 2025-07-29
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/alliances-sovereignty/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
Turning strategic alignment into real technological capability requires deliberate mechanisms at the alliance level. Formal statements of partnership (like NATO communiqués or bilateral MOUs) only matter if backed by concrete programs and standards. So let's outline key ways alliances can operationalize their cooperation in quantum tech. Shared Roadmaps and “Quantum-Ready” Goals Alliances can start by agreeing on shared technology roadmaps and end-goals. A prime example is NATO’s quantum strategy, which articulates a vision for a “quantum-ready Alliance.” NATO allies collectively identified priority quantum applications for defense, set targets for capability development, and defined milestones to integrate quantum tech into alliance planning. This joint roadmap ensures members pursue complementary R&D rather than redundant efforts. It also commits all allies to transition critical systems (like encryption) to quantum-safe methods on a common timeline. By aligning their national strategies to an alliance-level plan, countries create a force multiplier – each state’s investments reinforce a larger, coordinated push. Shared roadmaps require governance structures to keep everyone on track. For instance, the European Union has proposed a high-level Quantum Coordination Board to align EU member-state efforts, set common priorities, and steer funding toward cross-border projects. Such bodies can dynamically update alliance-wide action plans as technology evolves. They also help smaller members specialize in niches where they excel, avoiding duplication of under-funded projects everywhere. The result is a more rational division of labor: one country’s quantum sensor research complements another’s work on quantum processors, all mapped to a shared alliance vision.

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> Organizations may need to begin their quantum-readiness journey with a risk-driven approach rather than a theoretically perfect one.

- Published: 2025-07-24
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/risk-driven-quantum-crypto-inventory/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Given the practical challenges, organizations may need to begin their quantum-readiness journey with a risk-driven approach rather than a theoretically perfect one. The essence of this strategy is to focus limited resources where they matter most – addressing the highest quantum-vulnerability risks first and implementing interim safeguards for the rest. Even the U.S. government’s guidance recognizes the need for prioritization. For example, the federal memo mentioned above directs agencies to inventory high-impact systems, high-value assets (HVA), and any systems containing data that must remain sensitive through 2035 before worrying about less critical systems. In other words, not all cryptographic assets pose equal risk, so a sensible plan is to triage and tackle them in order of importance.

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> Quantum Art is an Israeli quantum computing startup focused on developing scalable trapped-ion hardware for quantum computers.

- Published: 2025-07-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-art/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Israel
Quantum Art is an Israeli quantum computing startup (spun out of the Weizmann Institute of Science in 2022) focused on developing scalable trapped-ion hardware for quantum computers. The company was born out of decades of ion-trap research at Weizmann and the achievement of Israel’s first full-stack quantum computer by its founding team. Led by a team of ~40 physicists and engineers, including veterans from academia and industry (Harvard, Stanford, Intel, etc.), Quantum Art aims to build full-stack, fault-tolerant quantum systems with a novel multi-core trapped-ion architecture. At its core, the company’s mission is to deliver commercially viable, high-qubit-count quantum processors based on trapped ions - leveraging long coherence times and high-fidelity quantum gates - while overcoming the scaling challenges that have so far limited quantum computers to only tens of qubits. In pursuing this, Quantum Art has developed proprietary techniques (multi-qubit gate operations, dynamic optical segmentation, etc.) to push trapped-ion technology toward millions of qubits in the coming decade.

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> Boards do not need to dive into the scientific intricacies of qubits and algorithms, but they do need to recognize that this is an important risk...

- Published: 2025-07-19
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-threat-executives-board/
- Categories: Leadership, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Boards do not need to dive into the scientific intricacies of qubits and algorithms, but they do need to recognize that this is a strategically important risk – one that can’t be simply delegated away. It requires the same level of governance attention as other enterprise-level risks like financial compliance, geopolitical factors, or pandemic preparedness. The comforting news is that if organizations act early, the quantum threat can be managed. Think of the proactive stance many companies took with Y2K in the late 1990s – those who started early averted disaster. Similarly here, those who begin preparing for quantum now (even while the technology is still maturing) will be in the best position to avoid chaos later. Early movers might even gain competitive advantages, by earning customer trust through their security resilience or by integrating quantum-safe technologies into their innovation roadmaps. In the end, addressing the quantum cybersecurity threat is about preserving trust.

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> A new Capgemini Research Institute report, “Future Encrypted: Why Post-Quantum Cryptography Tops the New Cybersecurity Agenda”, reveals...

- Published: 2025-07-15
- Modified: 2026-02-14
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/future-encrypted-pqc/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
A new Capgemini Research Institute report, “Future Encrypted: Why Post-Quantum Cryptography Tops the New Cybersecurity Agenda”, reveals that while awareness of the quantum threat is rising at the executive level, organizational readiness is dangerously lagging. Nearly two-thirds of businesses now see quantum computing as the most critical cybersecurity threat of the next 3-5 years. “Quantum readiness isn’t about predicting a date - it’s about managing irreversible risk. Every encrypted asset today could become tomorrow’s breach if organizations delay adopting post-quantum protections,” warns Capgemini’s Global Head of Cybersecurity Marco Pereira. For CISOs, the message is clear: waiting until “Q-day” (the day quantum computers can break current crypto) is not an option - the groundwork for post-quantum cryptography (PQC) must begin now. Awareness vs. Readiness: A Reality Check The good news is that quantum safety is finally on the C-suite agenda in many organizations. 70% of large enterprises surveyed are either assessing or already deploying quantum-safe measures (these are the “early adopters”). Regulatory pressure is a big driver – in fact, 70% cite new mandates as pushing them toward PQC adoption. Industries handling high-value secrets are leading the charge; defense and banking firms are moving fastest on PQC, whereas consumer sectors like retail are showing far less urgency.

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> Microsoft’s Azure Quantum team has released a new scientific paper - Distinct Lifetimes for X and Z Loop Measurements in a Majorana Tetron Device

- Published: 2025-07-12
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/microsofts-majorana1-chip-data/
- Categories: Research, Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
Microsoft’s Azure Quantum team has released a new scientific paper (Distinct Lifetimes for X and Z Loop Measurements in a Majorana Tetron Device) presenting the first experimental evidence of complementary Pauli-X and Pauli-Z parity measurements on a topological qubit. The results, announced by Microsoft Quantum Technical Fellow Chetan Nayak in a LinkedIn update, showcase the ability to “harness a topoconductor … and engineer a topological qubit that is small, fast, and digitally controlled” . In essence, Microsoft’s Majorana-1 quantum chip – unveiled amidst much fanfare earlier this year – has now demonstrated the two fundamental quantum measurements needed to operate a Majorana-based qubit. This development comes after years of skepticism surrounding Microsoft’s topological qubit approach, and the new data goes a long way toward validating the company’s high-risk, high-reward strategy.

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> On July 7, 2025 the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) published a major paper titled “Quantum-readiness for the financial system: a roadmap"

- Published: 2025-07-07
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/bis-quantum-roadmap-banking/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
On July 7, 2025 the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) – often called the “central bank of central banks” – published a major paper titled “Quantum-readiness for the financial system: a roadmap.” This BIS Paper No. 158, authored by experts from BIS’s Innovation Hub and several central banks, provides a comprehensive framework to help the global financial sector transition to quantum-safe cryptography. The BIS (an international institution that “fosters international monetary and financial cooperation” among central banks) rarely sounds the alarm on technology issues so explicitly. Their decision to issue a quantum-readiness roadmap is a clear signal that the threat posed by quantum computers to financial cybersecurity has moved from theoretical to tangible – and it demands urgent action across the industry.

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> Quantum readiness is not an exercise in science fiction – it’s a very practical program that yields benefits immediately...

- Published: 2025-07-04
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-ciso-budget/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Leadership
Quantum readiness is not an exercise in science fiction – it’s a very practical program that yields benefits immediately. Regulators are pushing us all in this direction, which means boards are willing to fund it. The journey forces you to finally catalog your cryptographic assets and clean up long-standing weaknesses, improving your security posture right now. It builds agility so you can handle any crypto curveballs the future throws. It energizes your team and attracts talent by giving them something exciting to work on. And it demonstrates to the world that your organization is on top of emerging threats, thereby inspiring confidence. For a CISO or CIO, that’s a legacy worth achieving.

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> Quantum Brilliance (QB) is an Australian-German quantum computing company developing diamond-based quantum accelerators...

- Published: 2025-07-04
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-brilliance/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Australia, Europe, Germany
Quantum Brilliance (QB) is an Australian-German quantum computing company (founded in 2019 as a spin-out of Australian National University) developing diamond-based quantum accelerators that operate at room temperature. Their hardware uses nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers in synthetic diamond as qubits - defects in a diamond lattice where a nitrogen atom sits adjacent to a missing carbon. NV-center qubits are attractive because diamond’s rigid lattice protects the qubits from environmental noise, giving them the longest coherence times of any room-temperature quantum system. Unlike most quantum computers that require ultra-low temperatures or high vacuum, QB’s devices need no cryogenics or complex laser cooling, allowing them to be smaller, energy-efficient, and deployable in ordinary environments. Strategically, Quantum Brilliance envisions quantum accelerators that can be co-located with classical computing hardware (in data centers, HPC facilities, vehicles, satellites, etc.), integrating seamlessly as “quantum co-processors” in heterogeneous computing systems.

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> Benchmarking quantum capabilities for cryptography is both critical and challenging. We can’t rely on any single metric like qubit count...

- Published: 2025-07-03
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-benchmark/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day, Q-Day Prediction
Benchmarking quantum capabilities for cryptography is both critical and challenging. We can’t rely on any single metric like qubit count to tell us how near we are to breaking RSA-2048. A combination of logical qubit count, error-corrected circuit depth, and operational speed must reach certain thresholds in unison. Existing benchmarks – Quantum Volume, Algorithmic Qubits, etc. – each address parts of this, but a CRQC-specific yardstick brings them together. By focusing on a concrete goal (factoring a 2048-bit RSA key), I defined a composite measure of progress. This new benchmark suggests that, as of 2025, we are perhaps on the order of one-tenth of the way there (in capability), but the pace of improvement is accelerating. With major leaps in algorithm efficiency and hardware roadmaps aiming at fault-tolerant machines by 2029, we could plausibly hit the needed 1000 logical qubits and 10^12 operations within ~5–7 years. That puts Q-Day around 2030 – aligning with the latest expert predictions that RSA-2048 will fall in the “very early 2030s” timeframe.

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> On July 2, 2025, the European Commission unveiled the Quantum Europe Strategy – a comprehensive roadmap

- Published: 2025-07-03
- Modified: 2026-02-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/quantum-europe-strategy/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Industry
- Tags: Europe
On July 2, 2025, the European Commission unveiled the Quantum Europe Strategy – a comprehensive roadmap to transform Europe into a “quantum industrial powerhouse” and global leader in quantum technologies by 2030. This strategy arrives at a pivotal moment: quantum computing, communication, and sensing are advancing from lab experiments to real-world applications, promising breakthroughs from ultra-secure communications to revolutionary medical imaging.

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> Exactly ten years ago, on July 3, 2015, we published the first version of Future of Leadership in the Age of AI. At that time...

- Published: 2025-07-01
- Modified: 2025-09-17
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-of-leadership-in-the-age-of-ai-decade/
- Categories: Leadership, AI Security
Exactly ten years ago, on July 3, 2015, we published the first version of Future of Leadership in the Age of AI. At that time, most discussions about artificial intelligence revolved around automating blue-collar jobs and routine manual tasks. Our contrarian view – based on hands-on experience implementing early AI systems in a large organization – was that AI would impact knowledge work even more profoundly. We envisioned AI evolving into super-smart pattern recognition and prediction machines, capable of augmenting or performing many cognitive tasks traditionally done by white-collar professionals. In other words, AI wouldn’t stop at the factory floor; it would move up the org chart into offices and boardrooms. This perspective was unusual then, but it has since been proven correct. In fact, as one early article presciently noted, AI’s effect on the workplace “will not be limited merely to repetitive, production line-type jobs” and is “increasingly entering the realm of highly trained knowledge workers”. We even argued that managers and executives would eventually work alongside AI, and that’s exactly the world we now see around us. (And have even published a comic on this topic at Working With AI).

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> Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI) is a Yale University spin-out that has pioneered a novel approach to superconducting quantum computing...

- Published: 2025-07-01
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-circuits/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Quantum Circuits, Inc. (QCI) is a Yale University spin-out that has pioneered a novel approach to superconducting quantum computing focused on hardware-efficient error correction. Co-founded in 2017 by leading Yale physicists (including Robert Schoelkopf, Michel Devoret, and Luigi Frunzio), QCI’s mission is to accelerate the path to fault-tolerant quantum computers by "correcting first, then scaling". Unlike many competitors in the superconducting qubit arena that emphasize scaling up qubit count, QCI’s strategy centers on a dual-rail cavity qubit architecture with built-in error detection at the hardware level. This distinctive hardware platform - integrating 3D microwave resonators (cavities) and transmon circuits - aims to deliver more reliable qubits with higher effective fidelity, thereby enabling consistent and repeatable quantum operations. In the broader quantum landscape, QCI stands out as a full-stack provider prioritizing fault tolerance from the outset, in contrast to the conventional NISQ-era approach of adding qubits first and worrying about errors later.

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> QuiX Quantum is a Dutch quantum technology company specializing in photonic quantum computing hardware. Founded in 2019...

- Published: 2025-06-30
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quix-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Europe, Netherlands
QuiX Quantum is a Dutch quantum technology company specializing in photonic quantum computing hardware. Founded in 2019 as a University of Twente spin-off, QuiX has quickly grown into a European leader in photonic quantum processors and systems. Unlike matter-based qubit platforms that use stationary quantum bits on a cryogenic chip, QuiX’s approach encodes qubits in photons - particles of light that serve as “flying” qubits traveling through optical circuits. This photonic modality allows quantum operations at room temperature and at light-speed, leveraging integrated photonic chips (made of low-loss silicon nitride) as the core processing units. By building quantum interferometer chips and combining them with single-photon sources and detectors, QuiX aims to realize a universal photonic quantum computer capable of executing any quantum algorithm.

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> Quantinuum announced a significant technical breakthrough: the company claims to have overcome the “last major hurdle” on the path to scalable

- Published: 2025-06-29
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantinuum-magic-states/
- Categories: Research, Industry
Quantinuum announced a significant technical breakthrough: the company claims to have overcome the “last major hurdle” on the path to scalable, universal fault-tolerant quantum computers. In a press release accompanying two new research papers, Quantinuum declared itself the first to demonstrate a fully error-corrected universal gate set—meaning it can perform all types of quantum operations (Clifford and non-Clifford) with errors detected and corrected in real-time. This achievement is universally recognized as an essential precursor to building large-scale quantum machines, and Quantinuum boldly asserts that it now has a “de-risked” roadmap to deliver a fully fault-tolerant quantum computer (code-named Apollo) by 2029.

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> Quantum readiness / PQC migration is arguably the largest and most complicated digital infrastructure overhaul in history. Yes, far bigger than Y2K...

- Published: 2025-06-28
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-pqc-migration/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Leadership
Preparing for the quantum era is arguably the largest and most complicated digital infrastructure overhaul in history. Yes, far bigger than Y2K, because back in 1999 we didn’t have millions of network-connected “things” to worry about. Yet despite clear warnings and rapidly approaching milestones, far too many organizations still treat quantum readiness as something to punt into next year – or worse, as a simple one-click software update. It won’t be that simple. Not by a long shot. If you haven’t already started planning your post-quantum migration, you’re not just behind schedule – you may already be late.

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> On June 24, 2025, a House Oversight Subcommittee held a hearing titled “Preparing for the Quantum Age: When Cryptography Breaks.”

- Published: 2025-06-26
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/preparing-for-the-quantum-age-hearing/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: United States
On June 24, 2025, a House Oversight Subcommittee held a hearing titled “Preparing for the Quantum Age: When Cryptography Breaks.” This hearing convened government, industry, and academic experts to discuss the looming threat quantum computing poses to our current cryptographic systems and what the United States should do to prepare. Witnesses included (in my opinion a great selection) Dr. Scott Crowder of IBM, Marisol Cruz Cain of the Government Accountability Office (GAO), Denis Mandich of Qrypt, and Professor Brenda Rubenstein of Brown University. The session was prompted in part by recent GAO reports warning that quantum computers could eventually break widely used encryption. Lawmakers and experts largely agreed on the urgency of “quantum readiness” – modernizing encryption and systems before a powerful quantum computer arrives – but they differed on timelines and approaches. Below I tried to summarize key themes from the hearing and offer personal perspective on these issues.

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> AI cannot break modern encryption. The reasons are fundamental: Mathematical Hardness, Cryptographic Design...

- Published: 2025-06-26
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-break-encryption/
- Categories: AI Security, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
AI cannot break modern encryption. The reasons are fundamental: Mathematical Hardness, Cryptographic Design, Empirical Track Record, Quantum Contrast, Expert Consensus.

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> On June 23, 2025 Canada has issued a new roadmap for migrating the Government of Canada’s IT systems to post-quantum cryptography (PQC).

- Published: 2025-06-26
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/canada-pqc-roadmap/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Canada
On June 23, 2025 The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security (Cyber Centre) has issued a new roadmap for migrating the Government of Canada’s IT systems to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). Effective June 23, 2025, this guidance, "Roadmap for the migration to post-quantum cryptography for the Government of Canada (ITSM.40.001)" lays out clear deadlines and expectations for all federal departments and agencies to transition their cryptographic systems to quantum-safe standards. It applies across non-classified federal IT systems, covering all Government of Canada networks handling UNCLASSIFIED, Protected A, and Protected B information (systems managing classified or Protected C data are addressed separately). The goal is straightforward: “all instances of public-key cryptography must be migrated” to protect Canadian systems and citizens’ data from the looming quantum threat.

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> The U.S. GAO has issued a June 2025 report titled “Quantum Computing: Leadership Needed to Coordinate Cyber Threat Mitigation Strategy”

- Published: 2025-06-25
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/us-gao-quantum-report/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) has issued a June 2025 report titled “Quantum Computing: Leadership Needed to Coordinate Cyber Threat Mitigation Strategy” (GAO-25-108590). GAO makes many spot-on recommendations – calling for strong federal leadership, workforce development, investment in post-quantum readiness, and securing the quantum tech supply chain – and I wholeheartedly agree with these points. However, I strongly disagree with GAO’s suggested timeline that a cryptography-breaking quantum computer is still 10–20 years away. In my view, the quantum threat is racing toward us faster than official estimates imply, and we must respond with the urgency of a present crisis.

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> Breaking one RSA-2048 key on a CRQC could cost $2–5 million when you add up energy, amortization, personnel, and facilities

- Published: 2025-06-24
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/total-cost-breaking-rsa-2048-crqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, CRQC Capability Framework, Quantum Computing
Breaking one RSA-2048 key on a CRQC could cost $2–5 million when you add up energy, amortization, personnel, and facilities
All three approaches share silicon's core advantages: compatibility with semiconductor industry infrastructure, small qubit footprint (~50 nm), and long coherence times enabled by isotopic purification of ²⁸Si. But they diverge sharply on how qubits are defined, controlled, and manufactured. Approach 1: Atomically Precise Donor Qubits The idea: Embed individual phosphorus atoms into a silicon crystal and use their nuclear spins (or the spin of the donor's extra electron) as qubits. Multiple donors placed within a few nanometres of each other share a single electron, creating a tightly coupled register with native multi-qubit connectivity through the hyperfine interaction.

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> On June 23, 2025, the European Commission and EU Member States unveiled a roadmap to transition Europe to post-quantum cryptography (PQC)

- Published: 2025-06-24
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/eu-pqc-roadmap/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Europe
On June 23, 2025, the European Commission and EU Member States unveiled a coordinated roadmap to transition Europe’s digital infrastructure to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This plan lays out a clear timeline for moving to quantum-resistant encryption, recognizing the urgent threat that future quantum computers pose to classical cryptography. PQC is seen as a key measure to deflect advanced cyber threats in the coming "quantum era." The roadmap’s recommendations aim to synchronize efforts across all member states so that Europe’s data and communications remain secure against quantum-enabled attackers.

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> Microsoft Quantum's researchers have introduced a new family of four-dimensional (4D) geometric quantum error-correcting codes

- Published: 2025-06-21
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/microsoft-4d-quantum-error-correction/
- Categories: Research, Industry
- Tags: United States
Microsoft Quantum's researchers have introduced a new family of four-dimensional (4D) geometric quantum error-correcting codes that promise to dramatically outperform today’s standard 2D surface codes. Revealed in a new preprint "A Topologically Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computer with Four Dimensional Geometric Codes" (arXiv:2506.15130v1) and an accompanying Microsoft blog post, these novel 4D LDPC codes (low-density parity-check codes) achieve 1,000-fold lower error rates and require far fewer physical qubits per logical qubit than the best existing approaches. In other words, by leveraging higher-dimensional structures (a “tesseract” lattice in four dimensions), Microsoft claims it can reach the ultra-low error levels needed for reliable quantum computing with a small fraction of the qubit overhead previously thought necessary. The new codes can correct errors in a single shot (one round of detection and recovery), potentially speeding up quantum computations and simplifying hardware design. If validated, this could be a significant milestone on the road to scalable fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC).

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> IonQ has unveiled an accelerated quantum computing roadmap that, if realized, could deliver a CRQC by 2028...

- Published: 2025-06-19
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ionqroadmap-crqc/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United States
IonQ has unveiled an accelerated quantum computing roadmap that, if realized, could deliver a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) as early as 2028. In a June 2025 announcement, the Maryland-based quantum startup – known for its trapped-ion technology – outlined dramatic scaling milestones enabled by recent acquisitions and technical breakthroughs. By leveraging Oxford Ionics’ chip-integrated ion traps and Lightsynq’s photonic interconnects (IoN's recent acquisitions), IonQ plans to boost its qubit counts by orders of magnitude. The company’s new timeline projects a jump from today’s tens of qubits to ~20,000 physical qubits by 2028, spread across two entangled chips, and reaching ~2,000,000 physical qubits by 2030. Crucially, IonQ estimates this will equate to about 1,600 error-corrected logical qubits in 2028, and on the order of 40,000–80,000 logical qubits by 2030 as error-correction improves . For context, “logical” qubits are the error-protected bits after applying quantum error correction – the effective computing units needed for breaking cryptography.

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> It’s time to mark a controversial date on the calendar: 2030 is the year RSA-2048 will be broken by a quantum computer - or the Q-Day.

- Published: 2025-06-19
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-rsa-broken-2030/
- Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
- Tags: featured
It’s time to mark a controversial date on the calendar: 2030 is the year RSA-2048 will be broken by a quantum computer. That’s my bold prediction, and I don’t make it lightly. In cybersecurity circles, the countdown to “Q-Day” or Y2Q (the day a cryptographically relevant quantum computer cracks our public-key encryption) has been a topic of intense debate. Lately, the noise has become deafening: some doom-and-gloom reports insist the quantum cryptopocalypse is just a year or two away, while hardened skeptics claim it’s so distant as to never happen. The truth lies between these extremes. A sober analysis of the latest breakthroughs shows that Q-Day is not here yet and won’t happen tomorrow – but it’s also no longer on the hazy horizon of “maybe never.” In fact, recent advances have dramatically sharpened the timeline, bringing the fall of RSA into the plausible timeframe of around 2030.

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> Oxford Ionics is a UK-based quantum computing company specializing in trapped-ion technology, distinguished by its use of microwave-based...

- Published: 2025-06-18
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oxford-ionics/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United Kingdom
Oxford Ionics is a UK-based quantum computing company specializing in trapped-ion technology, distinguished by its use of microwave-based “electronic” quantum gates instead of the laser-based control typical of most ion-trap systems. Co-founded in 2019 by Dr. Chris Ballance and Dr. Tom Harty - both leading ion-trap researchers - the company has rapidly built a reputation for record-setting performance in qubit fidelity. Oxford Ionics integrates all key control components onto semiconductor chips (“Electronic Qubit Control”), enabling qubits to be manipulated by on-chip electrodes and currents rather than large optical setups. This approach yields exceptionally high gate accuracies and a compact hardware footprint, as demonstrated by Oxford Ionics’ world-record single- and two-qubit gate fidelities achieved in 2024. The startup’s unique platform attracted major industry support and led to full-stack quantum computers delivered for national R&D programs in the UK and Germany by 2024.

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> The June 2025 preprint “Tour de gross” proposes the bicycle architecture: a modular, long‑range‑connected fault‑tolerant quantum computing stack

- Published: 2025-06-15
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/tour-de-gross/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Research
The June 2025 preprint “Tour de gross” proposes the bicycle architecture: a modular, long‑range‑connected fault‑tolerant quantum computing stack built around bivariate bicycle (BB) quantum LDPC codes and an explicit set of fault‑tolerant logical “bicycle instructions” (logical measurements, automorphisms, and T‑state injection). The paper’s central claim is architectural: for a fixed number of physical qubits and a fixed physical error rate, a bicycle architecture can run circuits with roughly an order of magnitude more logical qubits than conventional surface‑code architectures, at comparable logical T counts - but often with longer runtime per logical rotation because compilation to the instruction set is measurement-heavy. Two concrete BB codes anchor the proposal: the gross code ] and the two‑gross code ]. Each encodes 12 logical qubits per code block, with the architecture reserving one “pivot” logical qubit for measurement-based synthesis (leaving 11 “data” logical qubits per module in their compiler). Under a uniform circuit-level depolarizing noise model and a modern belief‑propagation–style decoder (Relay‑BP), the authors estimate per‑instruction logical error probabilities. A headline asymmetry emerges: inter‑module logical measurements are currently the noisiest primitive in their benchmarked set (e.g., for gross at physical error rate ($$p=10^{-3}$$), inter‑module measurement is ($$\sim 2\times10^{-3}$$) per use)

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> June 10 2025 IBM made a landmark announcement outlining a clear path to build the world’s first large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer...

- Published: 2025-06-14
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-quantum-roadmap-2029/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: United States
June 10 2025 IBM made a landmark announcement outlining a clear path to build the world’s first large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer by the year 2029. Codenamed IBM Quantum “Starling,” this planned system will leverage a new scalable architecture to achieve on the order of 200 logical (error-corrected) qubits capable of executing 100 million quantum gates in a single computation. IBM’s quantum leaders described this as “cracking the code to quantum error correction” – a breakthrough turning the long-held dream of useful quantum computing from fragile theory into an engineering reality.

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> Physicists at the University of Oxford have set a new world record for quantum logic accuracy, achieving single-qubit gate error rates below 10^-7

- Published: 2025-06-13
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/oxford-qubit-gate-error/
- Categories: Research
- Tags: United Kingdom
Physicists at the University of Oxford have set a new world record for quantum logic accuracy, achieving single-qubit gate error rates below 10^-7 – meaning fidelities exceeding 99.99999%. The breakthrough, reported in a study published in Physical Review Letters in June 2025 marks the lowest error ever recorded for any quantum computing platform. “As far as we are aware, this is the most accurate qubit operation ever recorded anywhere in the world,” said Professor David Lucas of Oxford’s Dept. of Physics. “It is an important step toward building practical quantum computers that can tackle real-world problems.”

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> A few of Forbes’s examples are genuinely promising; several smash together disparate ideas without noting the engineering road‑map...

- Published: 2025-06-13
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/forbes-20-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Industry
A few of Forbes’s examples are genuinely promising; several smash together disparate ideas without noting the engineering road‑map; and some miss key caveats that separate “demo‑ready” from “production‑ready.” The authors could have done a sharper job sorting mature use cases (think quantum key distribution) from long shots (say, universal quantum AI on petabyte‑scale data)—and of explaining the hardware, algorithmic, and economic hurdles in between. That said, knee‑jerk contrarianism is just as unhelpful as uncritical hype. As I argued in my recent essay on Quantum Contrarianism, pointing out a few overstatements does not prove the entire field is snake oil. The signal sits somewhere between the boosters and the naysayers. Below is a quick, use-case-by-use-case rundown: where Forbes is on-target, where it overreaches, and where the signal is still buried in marketing noise.

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> On June 6, 2025, President Donald J. Trump signed Executive Order titled “Sustaining Select Efforts to Strengthen the Nation’s Cybersecurity”

- Published: 2025-06-07
- Modified: 2026-02-26
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/trump-cybersecurity-order-quantum/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: United States
A New Executive Order Reshapes Cybersecurity Policy: On June 6, 2025, President Donald J. Trump signed a sweeping Executive Order titled “Sustaining Select Efforts to Strengthen the Nation’s Cybersecurity”, which explicitly amends two earlier orders: Obama-era Executive Order 13694 (2015) and the outgoing Biden administration’s Executive Order 14144 (January 16, 2025). This new order largely preserves the overall framework of those prior cybersecurity initiatives, but it strikes or revises many specific mandates – particularly those related to post-quantum cryptography, digital identity, and other advanced security measures. In essence, the Trump administration is paring back several forward-looking cybersecurity requirements put in place in late 2024, while doubling down on a more narrow set of “core” cyber defenses. One of the most significant changes is the rollback of quantum-resistant security mandates. Executive Order 14144, signed in the final days of the previous administration, had directed federal agencies to begin adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) “as quickly as feasible” and even urged technology vendors and allied nations to follow suit. That ambitious push has now been curtailed.

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> Achieving a comprehensive cryptographic inventory often requires combining multiple tools and methodologies. Each solution...

- Published: 2025-06-03
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-inventory-vendors/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Achieving a comprehensive cryptographic inventory often requires combining multiple tools and methodologies. Each solution above has blind spots: one might excel at catching code-level issues but miss network usage, another might see network traffic but miss dormant code, etc. Organizations starting a crypto inventory (especially as part of PQC readiness) should evaluate these tools in terms of their environment: for example, pairing a passive network sensor with an agent-based host scanner and a static code analyzer will cover most bases – network, runtime, and code. Many of the vendors themselves support integrations (as seen by partnerships between endpoint and network tool makers). The goal is to aggregate all findings, typically into a unified inventory database or CBOM repository, where overlapping data can be correlated and gaps identified.

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> Q-Day, sometimes called “Y2Q” or the “Quantum Apocalypse”, refers to the future moment when a quantum computer becomes powerful enough

- Published: 2025-06-02
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q/
- Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
Q-Day, sometimes called “Y2Q” or the “Quantum Apocalypse”, refers to the future moment when a quantum computer becomes powerful enough to break modern encryption algorithms. In other words, it’s the day a cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) can crack the public-key cryptography (like RSA or ECC) that underpins our digital security. The term “Y2Q” stands for “years to quantum,” an explicit nod to the Y2K bug - but unlike Y2K’s fixed deadline, the timing of Q-Day is unknown. It won’t announce itself with a clear date or time. There will be no midnight turn of the century when the problem visibly triggers. Instead, Q-Day could arrive without fanfare: one day all our encrypted data and communications appear normal, but behind the scenes one of the fundamental pillars of digital trust has crumbled.

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> Europe is a global powerhouse in deep-tech research - from quantum breakthroughs to biotech - yet it struggles to turn this scientific excellence...

- Published: 2025-05-31
- Modified: 2025-10-14
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/deep-tech-commercialization-eu/
- Categories: Quantum Commercialization
- Tags: Europe
Europe is a global powerhouse in deep-tech research - from quantum breakthroughs to biotech - yet it struggles to turn this scientific excellence into market success. In fact, Europe’s deep-tech sector holds immense potential (estimated at €8 trillion) but lags behind the US in funding and commercialization, with only a fraction of innovations translating into market-ready products. European startups produce impressive patent output and cutting-edge R&D, but too often these breakthroughs “perish in the valley of death” between lab and market deployment. The result is a persistent gap: Europe generates world-class innovations, yet comparatively few deep-tech startups scale into global commercial leaders. Multiple studies and reports have dissected this commercialization gap. A joint European Patent Office/EIB analysis, for example, found that three-quarters of deep-tech SMEs in both the EU and US cite access to finance and lack of skilled talent as major barriers. Europe’s challenge is particularly acute in later stages of growth: despite an increase in early-stage deep-tech funding, European companies are half as likely as US startups to raise large growth rounds. This funding gap at scale-up stage is estimated at hundreds of billions of euros, often forcing European founders to seek American or Asian investors to fuel growth. In short, Europe’s deep-tech innovation engine is firing on all cylinders, but its commercialization gearbox is not fully engaging.

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> A new breakthrough research preprint by Google Quantum AI scientist Craig Gidney has dramatically lowered the estimated resources...

- Published: 2025-05-28
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quantum-breakthrough-rsa-2048/
- Categories: Research, Quantum Security & PQC
A new research preprint by Google Quantum AI scientist Craig Gidney has dramatically lowered the estimated resources needed to break RSA-2048 encryption using a quantum computer. Gidney’s May 2025 paper, “How to factor 2048 bit RSA integers with less than a million noisy qubits,” argues that a fault-tolerant quantum computer with under 1 million qubits could factor a 2048-bit RSA key in under one week. This is a stunning 20× reduction in qubit count compared to Gidney’s own 2019 estimate, which required ~20 million qubits and about 8 hours of runtime for the same task. The new approach trades a longer runtime for far fewer qubits, signaling major algorithmic and error-correction advances in quantum factoring.

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> IonQ is a publicly traded leader in trapped‑ion quantum computing whose strategy is to reach useful fault tolerance with fewer physical qubits...

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ionq/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
IonQ is a publicly traded leader in trapped‑ion quantum computing whose strategy is to reach useful fault tolerance with fewer physical qubits by maximizing fidelity, connectivity, and modularity. Rather than racing raw qubit counts in noisy regimes, IonQ’s thesis is that very clean ions (identical atomic qubits with long coherence and native all-to-all coupling) can slash error‑correction overhead and bring logical qubits online earlier. That philosophy underpins the company’s newly accelerated 2025-2030 roadmap: migrate from today’s linear chains to chip‑integrated 2D ion traps for dense on-chip scaling, add photonic interconnects with quantum memory to stitch chips into one machine, and drive physical error rates low enough that small‑distance codes already deliver five-nines-plus logical fidelities.

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> IQM Quantum Computers is a Finland‑based hardware company building superconducting (transmon) quantum processors...

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/iqm/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Europe, Finland
IQM Quantum Computers is a Finland‑based hardware company building superconducting (transmon) quantum processors with a distinctly European strategy: deliver on‑premises systems tightly integrated with high‑performance computing (HPC) centers while co-designing architectures for error correction and, ultimately, fault tolerance. Rather than focus on cloud-only access or headline qubit counts, IQM emphasizes deployable machines, open low-level control for researchers, and chip topologies tailored to quantum error-correcting codes. Its near‑term deliverables: 54-, 150-, and 300-qubit systems for LRZ (Germany) and VTT (Finland); are positioned as stepping stones toward hundreds of logical qubits by around 2030 and, longer term, million-qubit-class fault-tolerant systems. Key technical levers include high‑fidelity transmons, tunable couplers, and two complementary layouts (“Crystal” grids and “Star” resonator hubs) intended to make quantum LDPC codes more resource-efficient than conventional surface-code lattices.

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> Microsoft Majorana Topological Quantum Computing

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/microsoft/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Microsoft’s quantum program is defined by a long‑bet on topological qubits - Majorana‑based devices designed to suppress errors at the hardware level - paired with a near-term, market-facing push through Azure Quantum. Publicly, Microsoft frames its roadmap in three phases: Foundational (prove and control Majorana modes), Resilient (demonstrate error-corrected logical qubits on a small system), and Scale (manufacture at CMOS-like volumes to reach millions of qubits). After years of materials work and device re-design, Microsoft reported the key Foundational steps (Majorana signatures and controllable pairs) and, by 2025, unveiled a “Majorana 1” prototype chip intended to exercise braiding‑style operations.

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> Nord Quantique is a Canadian quantum computing startup focused on building fault-tolerant quantum computers through innovative...

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/nord-quantique/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Canada
Nord Quantique is a Canadian quantum computing startup (founded in 2020 in Sherbrooke, Quebec) focused on building fault-tolerant quantum computers through innovative hardware design. The company’s mission centers on overcoming the main bottleneck in quantum computing - quantum error correction - by integrating error resilience directly into the hardware architecture. Unlike conventional approaches that require large numbers of physical qubits to encode a single logical qubit, Nord Quantique pursues a more hardware-efficient paradigm using bosonic qubits. In this design, quantum information is stored in high-quality electromagnetic modes (oscillators) rather than in individual two-level qubits, allowing errors to be corrected within each physical unit. By leveraging the large Hilbert space of superconducting resonators (cavities) and specialized quantum codes (notably the Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill, or GKP, bosonic code), Nord Quantique aims to drastically reduce the qubit overhead needed for fault tolerance. This strategy positions the company at the forefront of efforts to achieve practical, error-corrected quantum computing sooner than would be possible with brute-force, multi-qubit error correction techniques.

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> Pasqal is a French pioneer in neutral-atom quantum computing, building large, reconfigurable arrays of laser‑trapped Rydberg atoms

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/pasqal/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Europe, France
Pasqal is a French pioneer in neutral-atom quantum computing, building large, reconfigurable arrays of laser‑trapped Rydberg atoms and delivering them as on‑prem accelerators for HPC centers and industrial labs. Unlike many peers that separate “today’s NISQ” from “tomorrow’s FTQC,” Pasqal’s strategy is explicitly continuous: ship useful analog/digital processors now, and upgrade the same platform - via photonic‑integrated control, higher fidelities, and modular scaling - into a fault‑tolerant machine by the end of the decade.

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> PsiQuantum is a Silicon Valley-based startup taking a fundamentally different approach: photonic quantum computing.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/psiquantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
PsiQuantum is a Silicon Valley-based startup taking a fundamentally different approach: photonic quantum computing. Their goal from the outset has been to build a large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer using photons, and they famously stated they need on the order of 1 million physical qubits (photons) for this and intend to achieve that by the late 2020s. While extremely secretive, some information has emerged through their partnerships and the DARPA program that give insight into their roadmap.

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> QuEra Computing is a Boston-based quantum computing company pioneering neutral-atom quantum processors.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quera/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
QuEra Computing is a Boston-based quantum computing company pioneering neutral-atom quantum processors. Built on research from Harvard and MIT, QuEra operates the world’s largest publicly accessible quantum computer (the 256-qubit Aquila system on Amazon Braket) and is aggressively pursuing fault-tolerant architectures. In early 2025 QuEra secured a major $230 million financing (with investors like Google and SoftBank) to accelerate development of a “useful” fully-fledged quantum computer within the next 3-5 years. This funding and QuEra’s recent technical breakthroughs underscore an ambitious roadmap focused on scalability and error correction using neutral atoms, aiming to deliver practical quantum advantage on an aggressive timescale.

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> Rigetti Computing is a full-stack quantum hardware company specializing in superconducting qubit processors.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/rigetti/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Rigetti Computing is a full-stack quantum hardware company specializing in superconducting qubit processors. Rigetti’s qubits are implemented as Josephson-junction-based circuits (transmons) operated at milli-Kelvin temperatures inside dilution refrigerators. This platform offers extremely fast gate speeds (on the order of tens of nanoseconds) and leverages mature semiconductor-fabrication techniques for scalability. Rigetti’s strategy centers on scaling up superconducting qubit counts while improving fidelity and pursuing quantum error correction toward fault-tolerant systems.

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> Xanadu is a Toronto-based quantum computing company pioneering photonic (light-based) quantum processors.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/xanadu/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Canada
Xanadu is a Toronto-based quantum computing company pioneering photonic (light-based) quantum processors. Founded in 2016 by CEO Christian Weedbrook, the venture has quickly become a leader in continuous-variable photonic quantum computing hardware and software. Xanadu’s approach leverages squeezed-light photons as qubits - allowing operations at room temperature and compatibility with existing fiber-optic networks - in contrast to the cryogenic setups required by superconducting or trapped-ion systems. The company’s long-term mission is to build a fault-tolerant quantum computing data center in Canada by the end of this decade. Toward this goal, Xanadu has developed unique photonic qubit encodings (notably the Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill (GKP) bosonic qubit states) that can encode error-resilient quantum information in light. By embedding error-correction at the physical qubit level and exploiting the natural networking of photonics, Xanadu aims to scale up to utility-scale quantum machines that are both powerful and widely accessible.

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> Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) is a young entrant in the quantum computing race that has charted a strikingly different course from its larger rivals.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantum-computing-inc/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) is a young entrant in the quantum computing race that has charted a strikingly different course from its larger rivals. Rather than building superconducting or ion-trap processors requiring extreme isolation, QCI focuses on photonic quantum machines that operate at room temperature and even embrace environmental noise - a paradigm it calls Entropy Quantum Computing. In theory, this approach allows QCI’s devices (branded the “Dirac” series) to solve certain optimization problems today, without the overhead of cryogenics or error correction. QCI has aggressively promoted its technology as a practical quantum solution for complex problems in logistics, finance, and more. However, recent revelations have cast a shadow over the company’s claims. In early 2025, a short-seller report accused QCI of grossly overstating key achievements - from its partnership with NASA to the functionality of its products - suggesting that some of QCI’s narrative was more hype than reality These allegations, now the subject of shareholder lawsuits, have put QCI in the spotlight for all the wrong reasons. Amid both bold innovation and brewing controversy, QCI’s journey epitomizes the promise and pitfalls faced by startups in the quantum industry.

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> Quantinuum, formed by the 2021 merger of Honeywell Quantum Solutions and Cambridge Quantum, is another leader in trapped-ion

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quantinuum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Quantinuum, formed by the 2021 merger of Honeywell Quantum Solutions and Cambridge Quantum, is another leader in trapped-ion quantum computing. It combines Honeywell’s hardware prowess with Cambridge’s algorithm/software expertise. Quantinuum’s roadmap is notably direct about pursuing fault tolerance, and they’ve recently accelerated their timeline.

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> The saga of Quantum Computing Inc. is a stark illustration of what happens when hype becomes unmoored from truth.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-winter-warning/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
The saga of Quantum Computing Inc. is a stark illustration of what happens when hype becomes unmoored from truth. If the quantum field falls into the trap of overselling and under-delivering, we will hand ammunition to detractors and possibly induce the very “quantum winter” we all want to avoid. Investors and enthusiasts should indeed be excited by progress, but also clear-eyed: practical quantum computing is not here yet, and any company claiming otherwise (or touting suspiciously outsized achievements) deserves heavy scrutiny. Conversely, researchers and companies should feel empowered to say “this is hard, and will take time” without fearing that candor will scare off support. In the long run, transparency builds credibility, and credibility sustains investment far more than sensational claims that fall apart.

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> For universities and tech transfer offices (TTOs), understanding global diverse quantum innovation ecosystems is more than a matter of curiosity...

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2026-02-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/global-quantum-innovation/
- Categories: Quantum Commercialization
- Tags: China, Europe, Japan, Middle East, United States
For universities and tech transfer offices (TTOs), understanding global diverse quantum innovation ecosystems is more than a matter of curiosity – it’s a practical guide for positioning academic spin‑offs for success on the world stage. Government investment is a key differentiator: by 2025, governments worldwide have committed over $40 billion in public funding for quantum technology. How those funds are deployed, however, varies dramatically. In this article, we survey how major regions – from China’s top-down push to Europe’s collaborative networks to the U.S.’s market-driven model – are building their quantum tech sectors, and we analyze what these models mean for university spin‑outs. The key takeaway: by learning from global approaches, local TTOs can better secure funding, forge partnerships, and navigate the emerging quantum economy.

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> Fujitsu, a Japanese IT and computing giant, has emerged as a serious player in quantum computing through a multi-pronged strategy spanning...

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/fujitsu/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Japan
Fujitsu, a Japanese IT and computing giant, has emerged as a serious player in quantum computing through a multi-pronged strategy spanning cutting-edge quantum hardware and quantum-inspired annealing solutions. The company is pursuing one of the most ambitious quantum roadmaps to date - developing a 10,000+ qubit superconducting quantum computer by 2030 - with a focus on achieving practical advantage using fault-tolerant logical qubits. Fujitsu’s approach uniquely combines its heritage in high-performance computing (it co-developed the Fugaku supercomputer) with new quantum technologies, all under a “made-in-Japan” initiative. By leveraging both digital annealers (classical CMOS hardware that mimics quantum annealing) and superconducting quantum processors, Fujitsu aims to bridge current computational needs and the future era of true quantum advantage. The result is a broad, hardware-centered program positioning Fujitsu alongside global quantum leaders, but with its own strengths in hybrid HPC integration and a clear goal of building a fault-tolerant quantum computer in the coming decade.

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> Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC) is a UK-based quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-out from the University of Oxford.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/oqc/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United Kingdom
Oxford Quantum Circuits (OQC) is a UK-based quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-out from the University of Oxford. It has emerged as a leading hardware developer focused on building commercially useful quantum computers for real-world applications. OQC was the first European provider of Quantum-Compute-as-a-Service (QCaaS), delivering enterprise-grade quantum systems via the cloud and even deploying them in standard commercial data centers. At the core of OQC’s technology is its proprietary “Coaxmon” architecture - a three-dimensional superconducting qubit design (a variant of the transmon) that places qubit components on opposite sides of a substrate to simplify wiring and improve coherence. By leveraging this 3D coaxial approach, OQC aims to overcome some scaling limitations of planar superconducting circuits while maintaining compatibility with proven microwave control techniques.

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> ORCA Computing is a U.K.-based quantum computing company that builds photonic quantum processors using light (single photons)...

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/orca-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United Kingdom
ORCA Computing is a U.K.-based quantum computing company (spun out of the University of Oxford in 2019) that builds photonic quantum processors using light (single photons) traveling through optical fiber. Its mission is to make quantum computing a practical reality by delivering near-term quantum accelerators for tasks like machine learning, while concurrently developing a path toward large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computers. ORCA’s approach centers on a modular, fiber-interconnected architecture - essentially full-stack photonic systems constructed from telecom-grade components (lasers, fibers, switches, detectors, etc.) This design aims to leverage photonics’ advantages (low noise, no need for cryogenics, natural networking via fiber) to achieve scalability and usability beyond what “cumbersome, fragile, and costly” quantum setups have offered to date.

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> The Dutch quantum computing community has reached a new milestone, revealing a homegrown quantum computer named Tuna-5.

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantum-computer-tuna-5/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: Netherlands
The Dutch quantum computing community has reached a new milestone, revealing a homegrown quantum computer named Tuna-5. Announced in mid-May 2025, the Tuna-5 system is a 5-qubit superconducting quantum computer built using a modular “open-architecture” approach, and it’s now accessible to users worldwide via QuTech’s Quantum Inspire cloud platform. This is not a typical industry quantum machine in a sealed box; rather, it’s a collaborative creation by local research institutes and startups, with each contributor providing a piece of the puzzle. The result is a small but fully functional quantum computer that showcases the Netherlands’ burgeoning quantum ecosystem and its commitment to openness and innovation. An Open Quantum Leap in Delft The Tuna-5 launch was orchestrated by a partnership between QuTech (the advanced quantum research center at TU Delft), the Dutch research organization TNO, and four Delft-based startups: QuantWare, Qblox, Orange Quantum Systems, and Delft Circuits. Each brought their specialized component to the table. QuantWare fabricated the quantum processor chip, Qblox supplied the control electronics that send and read signals from the qubits, Orange Quantum Systems contributed its “Orange Juice” quantum operating system and software toolkit, and Delft Circuits provided cutting-edge cryogenic wiring to link everything together. The Tuna-5 system is housed in QuTech’s DiCarlo Lab in Delft and is now one of three real hardware backends available on Quantum Inspire (alongside QuTech’s existing 7-qubit and 2-qubit processors).

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> A Quantum Readiness Assessment (QRA) is an in-depth review of an organization’s preparedness for the advent of quantum computing...

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-readiness-assessment/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
A Quantum Readiness Assessment (QRA) is an in-depth review of an organization’s preparedness for the advent of quantum computing - especially its ability to withstand or adapt to the "quantum threat" posed by quantum computers that could render current cryptography obsolete. In practical terms, a QRA examines how an organization’s systems, data, and processes would hold up if cryptographically relevant quantum computers were available today. This typically involves assessing the use of vulnerable cryptographic algorithms (like RSA or ECC), the governance and plans in place to transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC), and the overall agility of the organization to respond to quantum-driven change.

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> Planqc is a Munich-based quantum computing startup developing a neutral-atom quantum computing platform

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/planqc/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Europe, Germany
Planqc is a Munich-based quantum computing startup (founded in 2022 as a Max-Planck-Institute spin-off) developing a neutral-atom quantum computing platform. The company’s core approach is to store quantum information in individual ultra-cold atoms that are trapped in optical lattices - effectively using nature’s identical atoms as qubits. By leveraging techniques from atomic clocks, high-resolution quantum gas microscopes, and fast Rydberg-mediated gates, planqc aims to build scalable, digital quantum processors operating at or near room temperature. This distinguishes planqc’s platform from superconducting or ion-trap qubit technologies that require specialized chips and cryogenics. With strong backing from German research institutions and investors, planqc has set out an ambitious roadmap toward universal, fault-tolerant quantum computers comprising thousands of qubits, positioning itself as a European leader in neutral-atom quantum hardware.

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> Quandela is a French quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-off from the Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (C2N)

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/quandela/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Europe, France
Quandela is a French quantum computing company founded in 2017 as a spin-off from the Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (C2N) in Paris. It has established itself as a pioneer in photonic quantum computing, focusing on single-photon-based qubits and integrated photonic circuits. Quandela’s core modality is optical (photonic) quantum computing, leveraging single photons as qubits. This approach differentiates it from superconducting or trapped-ion platforms, enabling operation largely at room temperature and simpler cooling requirements. In the global quantum ecosystem, Quandela is one of the leading proponents of photonic quantum hardware, alongside international peers like PsiQuantum and Xanadu, and is Europe’s foremost photonic quantum computing vendor. By combining expertise in semiconductor quantum light sources and optical circuits, Quandela is building universal gate-based quantum processors based on light, with the aim of achieving scalable and fault-tolerant quantum computers. The company is vertically integrated (full-stack), providing not only hardware but also a software stack (e.g. the Perceval quantum programming framework) and cloud access to its devices, positioning it as a comprehensive player in the quantum ecosystem.

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> Intel’s quantum computing program has carved a distinctive path, marrying cutting-edge quantum research with the might of silicon manufacturing

- Published: 2025-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/intel/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Intel’s quantum computing program has carved a distinctive path, marrying cutting-edge quantum research with the might of advanced silicon manufacturing. Over the past several years, Intel progressed from superconducting qubit test chips (17 and 49 qubits) to a focus on silicon spin qubits, culminating in the 12-qubit Tunnel Falls chip in 2023. Alongside qubit chips, Intel engineered a unique cryo-control architecture: the Horse Ridge I/II cryogenic CMOS controllers at 4 K and the recent Pando Tree demultiplexer at millikelvin temperatures address the wiring and control scalability issue head-on. This two-tier control system drastically reduces the number of cables needed as qubit counts grow - a novel solution to one of quantum computing’s knottiest engineering problems (the “wiring bottleneck” that would otherwise make a large cryostat unmanageable). Intel’s hardware iterations have consistently aimed at improving the technical readiness for scale: better coherence (through materials and design), higher gate fidelities, more qubits, and integrated control, all while using a manufacturable platform. Intel’s system architecture is designed with fault tolerance in mind from day one. The company is pursuing quantum error correction via a 2D array of spin qubits with nearest-neighbor coupling - ideal for the surface code (each qubit has four neighbors in a lattice for error-checking). Intel has emphasized improving qubit fidelity (reporting 99.9% single-qubit fidelity in silicon devices) and is working to push two-qubit fidelities into the error-correctable regime. Equally, Intel tackled the control automation needed for QEC: its Horse Ridge and Pando Tree chips allow controlling many qubits with minimal external wiring, which will be vital for executing rapid, parallel error-correcting operations across a large array. With 12 physical qubits today, Intel is far from threatening cryptography; nonetheless, the technologies it is developing (dense qubit integration, high fidelities, and massive multiplexed control) are exactly those needed for a CRQC-class machine. Intel acknowledges that we are “years away from large-scale implementation” of quantum for real-world problems like cryptography. That said, if Intel’s approach succeeds, it could yield a quantum computer that is manufacturable at scale - meaning once the fundamental hurdles are overcome, scaling to the millions of qubits needed for CRQC could accelerate rapidly. Intel’s track record in quantum is characterized by steady innovation and partnership. It has delivered a series of pioneering devices (superconducting and spin qubit chips, Horse Ridge controllers) on a roughly yearly cadence, each addressing a key challenge to scalability. Intel has also actively engaged with academia and government - from QuTech in Europe to LQC in the U.S. - to share devices and knowledge. The company has demonstrated transparency by publishing research in top journals and by frankly discussing challenges in public forums. All these have lent credibility to Intel’s effort. In conclusion, Intel’s quantum effort is a long-term, high-ambition project that leverages the company’s traditional strengths in manufacturing and design. They have made notable strides in developing their own quantum hardware: from novel spin-qubit chips to cryogenic CMOS controllers - forming a blueprint of a future full-stack quantum system.

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> Amazon has taken a dual approach to quantum computing, combining cutting-edge hardware research with commercial cloud services.

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/amazon-aws/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Amazon has taken a dual approach to quantum computing, combining cutting-edge hardware research with commercial cloud services. On the R&D side, Amazon Web Services (AWS) established the AWS Center for Quantum Computing at Caltech in 2019, explicitly aiming to build a fault-tolerant quantum computer capable of solving problems beyond classical reach. This effort focuses on superconducting qubits and novel error-correction techniques, leveraging a team of quantum hardware experts (led by Caltech professors Oskar Painter and Fernando Brandão) and close collaborations with academic luminaries like John Preskill. In parallel, Amazon’s cloud platform Amazon Braket (launched in 2019-2020) offers on-demand access to a variety of quantum processors through a unified interface. Braket enables researchers and developers to run quantum algorithms on multiple modalities - from superconducting circuits to ion traps and photonic devices - alongside classical computing resources for hybrid quantum-classical workflows. This combination of long-term hardware development and near-term cloud services characterizes Amazon’s strategy: invest in future fault-tolerant architecture while providing present-day quantum computing access and tools to customers.

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> Atom Computing is a fast-rising startup developing gate-based quantum computers using optically trapped neutral atoms as qubits.

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/atom-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Atom Computing is a fast-rising startup developing gate-based quantum computers using optically trapped neutral atoms as qubits. The company made headlines in late 2023 by announcing a 1,225-site optical atom array populated with 1,180 qubits - the first universal quantum platform to surpass 1,000 qubits. This dramatic leap (from a ~100-qubit first-generation system to >1,000 qubits in one generation) showcases the inherent scalability of Atom’s neutral-atom approach. Atom’s qubits are encoded in the nuclear spin states of neutral atoms, which yields exceptionally long coherence times (on the order of ~40 seconds). Combined with all-to-all connectivity enabled by mobile laser-trapped atoms, this platform has been designed from the outset with fault-tolerant quantum computing in mind. The startup’s aggressive progress and focus on error correction have quickly made it a serious contender in the race toward practical, large-scale quantum computers.

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> D-Wave Systems is a pioneer in quantum computing known for its unique focus on quantum annealing - a specialized analog approach...

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/d-wave/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Canada
D-Wave Systems is a pioneer in quantum computing known for its unique focus on quantum annealing - a specialized analog approach distinct from the gate-based quantum processors pursued by most competitors. Founded in 1999, D-Wave became the first company to commercially sell a quantum computer in 2011 with a 128-qubit annealing-based system. Rather than the circuit model of quantum computation (employing logic gates on qubits), D-Wave’s machines solve optimization problems by evolving a network of superconducting flux qubits toward low-energy states, implementing an Ising-model annealing process. This approach proved scalable in qubit count early on, albeit limited to certain problem types (notably combinatorial optimization). Over two decades, D-Wave has iteratively improved its annealing processors, delivering ever-larger quantum annealers to customers in research and industry. Today, D-Wave stands out as the only company building both annealing and gate-model quantum computers. In recent years, it has embarked on a significant strategic expansion: leveraging its annealing expertise to develop a gate-based quantum computing platform, with an emphasis on long-term scalability and fault tolerance.

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> Diraq is an Australian quantum computing startup focused on building large-scale quantum processors based on silicon-based spin qubits.

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/diraq/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Australia
Diraq is an Australian quantum computing startup (founded in 2022 as a spin-off from UNSW Sydney by Professor Andrew Dzurak) focused on building large-scale quantum processors based on silicon-based spin qubits. The company’s strategy is to leverage standard silicon CMOS manufacturing - using modified transistor structures that act as quantum bits - to achieve practical and scalable quantum computing. Diraq’s qubits are single-electron spins confined in silicon quantum dots, an approach originally pioneered by its founding team (Dzurak’s group demonstrated the first two-qubit logic gate in silicon in 2015). By consolidating millions of these qubits on a single chip, Diraq aims to deliver “utility-scale” quantum processors that are powerful and cost-effective enough for real-world applications. This vision of integrating quantum devices with classical semiconductor technology underpins Diraq’s mission to build fault-tolerant quantum computers using familiar silicon chip fabrication techniques. Notably, Diraq emerged as a separate venture from the earlier UNSW effort Silicon Quantum Computing (led by Michelle Simmons), choosing in 2022 to pursue a different route to the quantum comp

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> Google is a frontrunner in the quest to build practical quantum computers. The company made headlines in 2019 by achieving quantum supremacy...

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/google/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Google is a frontrunner in the quest to build practical quantum computers. The company made headlines in 2019 by achieving quantum supremacy – using its 53-qubit Sycamore processor to perform in about 200 seconds a task that was estimated to require 10,000 years on a top supercomputer. This dramatic demonstration marked a milestone in computing and signaled Google’s emergence as a leader in quantum hardware. Since then, Google has set an ambitious target: to build a “useful, error-corrected quantum computer” by 2029. Announced by CEO Sundar Pichai in 2021, this goal defines Google’s roadmap for the decade. In essence, Google is striving to create a fault-tolerant quantum machine within ten years – a feat likely requiring on the order of one million physical qubits to yield enough stable logical qubits. Achieving this will demand major advances in qubit quality, error correction, and scaling technologies.

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> IBM has laid out one of the most detailed and aggressive quantum computing roadmaps in the industry. Over the past few years, IBM Quantum...

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/ibm/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
IBM has laid out one of the most detailed and aggressive quantum computing roadmaps in the industry. Over the past few years, IBM Quantum has consistently hit its interim milestones, expanding both the scale of its processors and the sophistication of its approach to quantum computing. As a long-time pioneer in quantum computing, IBM was the first to put real quantum hardware on the cloud and has steadily built a global ecosystem (IBM Quantum Network) around its machines. Now, IBM’s focus is squarely on scaling up towards practical, fault-tolerant quantum computers by the end of this decade. Key highlights include ambitious qubit count milestones, a pivot toward error-corrected qubits, and an integration of quantum and classical computing into “quantum-centric supercomputing” systems.

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> Aegiq is a UK-based quantum technology startup that focuses on building full-stack photonic quantum computing systems

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2025-10-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/aegiq/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United Kingdom
Aegiq is a UK-based quantum technology startup (spun out from the University of Sheffield in 2019) that focuses on building full-stack photonic quantum computing systems. The company initially gained recognition for its work in quantum networking and quantum key distribution (QKD), leveraging a proprietary single-photon and integrated quantum optics platform. Today, Aegiq’s ambitions extend beyond secure communications - it is actively developing both quantum hardware (photonic quantum processors and components) and software, aiming to deliver scalable quantum computers based on photons. Aegiq brands itself as a “full-stack photonic quantum computing” company, meaning it develops everything from the single-photon sources and photonic chips up to control software and end-user applications. Its flagship prototype, a photonic quantum computing platform named Artemis, exemplifies this approach - combining on-demand single-photon generators, integrated photonic circuits, and fiber-optic interconnects in a compact, reconfigurable system. In short, Aegiq is staking out a position at the intersection of quantum computing and photonic communication, with a vision to harness light for both networking and computing in the quantum era.

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> Infleqtion (formerly ColdQuanta) is a leading quantum technology company focused on gate-based quantum computing built on neutral atoms

- Published: 2025-05-21
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/infleqtion/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: United States
Infleqtion (formerly known as ColdQuanta) is a leading quantum technology company focused on gate-based quantum computing built on neutral atoms. By leveraging optically trapped atomic qubits, Infleqtion aims to deliver scalable, high-fidelity quantum processors with a clear path toward fault-tolerance and commercial utility. The company’s approach emphasizes large 2D qubit arrays and Rydberg-mediated entangling gates, achieving record gate fidelities and integrating advanced software control to accelerate progress toward logical qubits.

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> Alice & Bob is a Paris-based quantum computing startup focused on building a universal, fault-tolerant quantum computer using a novel “cat qubit”

- Published: 2025-05-20
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing-companies/alice-bob/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Companies
- Tags: Europe, France
Alice & Bob is a Paris-based quantum computing startup (founded in Feb 2020 by Dr. Théau Peronnin and Dr. Raphaël Lescanne) focused on building a universal, fault-tolerant quantum computer using a novel “cat qubit” architecture. The company’s approach leverages superconducting cat qubits, quantum bits that are inherently protected from certain errors, to drastically reduce the overhead for error correction. Backed by substantial funding and scientific pedigree, Alice & Bob has set out an ambitious roadmap aiming to deliver the world’s first “useful” fault-tolerant quantum computer by 2030, culminating in a system with 100 high-fidelity logical qubits (code-named Graphene) demonstrating real-world quantum advantage. In essence, Alice & Bob’s strategy is to “fight decoherence” at the hardware level via cat qubits, thereby making scalable quantum computing practical with far fewer qubits than conventional designs.

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> Quantum sovereignty is talent-constrained. In the race for quantum technology leadership, a skilled workforce has become a strategic asset...

- Published: 2025-05-07
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-human-capital-geopolitics/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty, Quantum Commercialization
Quantum sovereignty is talent-constrained. In the race for quantum technology leadership, a skilled workforce has become a strategic asset - and a policy battleground. Nations are increasingly treating talent as a key lever of geopolitics, shaping immigration visas, research-security screening, and even export control rules around the goal of securing human capital. This trend reflects a broader “geopolitical competition for talent” playing out across science, technology, and education domains. The stakes are high: experts warn that a shortage of quantum specialists could undermine national competitiveness and security. Visas and Immigration: Competing for High-Tech Talent The global race for tech talent is intensifying, with countries vying to attract (or retain) experts in critical fields such as quantum computing, AI, and advanced engineering. Governments are recognizing that human capital can confer a strategic edge beyond mere economic gains. Thus far, many have pursued tactical measures - offering special visas, scholarships, or fast-tracks - but achieving a true geopolitical edge in talent may require bolder strategies.

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> Superconducting cat qubits are an emerging approach to quantum computing that still uses superconducting circuits but encodes each qubit...

- Published: 2025-05-07
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-cat-qubits/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Superconducting cat qubits are an emerging approach to quantum computing that still uses superconducting circuits but encodes each qubit in a bosonic mode - typically a microwave resonator - as a Schrödinger “cat” state (a superposition of two coherent states). In essence, instead of a single Josephson junction acting as a two-level qubit (like a transmon or flux qubit), a cat qubit stores quantum information in the joint state of many photons delocalized in a superconducting resonator. The two basis states are often coherent states of opposite phase (e.g. |α⟩ and |-α⟩, named after Schrödinger’s famous cat that is “alive” and “dead” at once). This clever encoding gives cat qubits built-in noise resilience: one type of error (analogous to a bit-flip, which would swap |α⟩ ↔ |-α⟩) is intrinsically suppressed, because transitioning between those distinct states is unlikely. Meanwhile, the other error (phase-flip between |α⟩ and |-α⟩ superpositions) can be corrected with a simple redundancy code. The result is a biased-noise qubit that remains coherent much longer against certain errors than a conventional superconducting qubit.

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> Europe's new cryptographic rulebook makes PQC algorithms "recommended" for the first time, mandates hybrid deployments for lattice-based...

- Published: 2025-04-30
- Modified: 2026-03-29
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/eu-cryptographic-rulebook-pqc/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
30 Apr 2025 - For years, the EU's position on post-quantum cryptography could be summarized as "we're watching closely." That changed in April 2025, when the European Cybersecurity Certification Group - the body that decides which cryptographic mechanisms are acceptable for products certified under Europe's EUCC scheme - published Version 2.0 of its Agreed Cryptographic Mechanisms document. It's the first time PQC algorithms have appeared on Europe's official "recommended" list. And the document's details reveal a regulatory philosophy that differs from NIST's approach in ways that matter for anyone planning a migration. The ACM v2 replaces the SOG-IS Agreed Cryptographic Mechanisms that had governed European Common Criteria evaluations for over a decade. Where its predecessor had nothing to say about post-quantum cryptography, the new document weaves PQC considerations into nearly every section — from key encapsulation and digital signatures to symmetric key lengths and hash function parameters. It's not just an addendum. It's a ground-up rewrite for the quantum era. What's In and What It Means The headline additions are the NIST-standardized post-quantum algorithms. ML-KEM (FIPS 203) earns "recommended" status for key encapsulation. ML-DSA (FIPS 204) earns "recommended" for digital signatures. The stateless hash-based signature scheme SLH-DSA (FIPS 205) and the stateful schemes XMSS and LMS (SP 800-208) round out the signature portfolio. But the more interesting story is what Europe added that NIST didn't - and the conditions it attached.
This year's edition, released on March 18 and presented to the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence by Director of National Intelligence, does something notable for anyone tracking quantum security: it treats quantum computing not as a footnote to cyber threats or a future curiosity, but as one of two defining technological challenges to U.S. national security - right alongside AI. For those of us who have spent years arguing that quantum risk deserves boardroom and cabinet-level attention, this isn't just bureaucratic reshuffling. It's the U.S. intelligence establishment putting its institutional weight behind a position that the quantum security community has long advocated. What the Annual Threat Assessment Is (And Why It Matters) For readers unfamiliar with the ATA: The ATA is not a think-tank report or a vendor whitepaper. It is the product of a structured, multi-agency intelligence process - the National Intelligence Council coordinating input from the CIA, NSA, DIA, FBI, and every other component of the U.S. Intelligence Community. Its language is reviewed, debated, and negotiated among analysts with access to classified intelligence that will never appear in these pages. It's debated for months. Every word and punctuation in this carries weight.

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> The energy requirements for breaking RSA-2048 with a quantum computer underscore how different the post-quantum threat is...

- Published: 2025-04-24
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/energy-cost-rsa-2048-quantum/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, CRQC Capability Framework, Q-Day
The energy requirements for breaking RSA-2048 with a quantum computer underscore how different the post-quantum threat is from conventional hacking. It’s not just about qubits and math; it’s about megawatts, cooling systems, and power grids. Today, that reality means only the most potent actors would even contemplate such attacks, and even then only for the crown jewels of intelligence. Tomorrow, advances in both quantum engineering and energy production could erode even that barrier. The enormous costs – in dollars and joules – of quantum cryptanalysis serve as a stark warning and a call to action. They buy us time to fortify our cryptographic defenses, but not an indefinite amount of time. In the end, whether or not our data remains secure in the quantum age may depend as much on developments in high-energy physics as on breakthroughs in quantum algorithms. The prudent course for defenders is clear: assume the worst-case scenario (a powerful CRQC powered by abundant energy) will eventually come to pass, and move urgently toward encryption that can withstand that future.

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> Amid quantum revolution, a bottleneck has emerged: a lack of skilled people. In fact, the quantum talent shortage is now seen as one...

- Published: 2025-04-23
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/quantum-workforce-talent/
- Categories: Leadership, Quantum Commercialization
Amid quantum revolution, a bottleneck has emerged: a lack of skilled people. In fact, the quantum talent shortage is now seen as one of the primary hurdles to translating lab discoveries into real-world innovations. One industry expert even warned that developing a “quantum-literate workforce” will be a key factor in winning the global tech race. The message is clear – without enough qualified engineers, scientists, and entrepreneurs, the quantum boom could stall despite ample funding and cutting-edge research. Recent studies underscore the severity of the gap. A McKinsey report found there is only one qualified candidate available for every three quantum job openings. In other words, demand outstrips supply threefold. As a result, more than half of open quantum positions may go unfilled – with projections that less than half of all quantum computing jobs filled by 2025 unless we take action. This shortfall isn’t limited to one country or subfield; it appears across the board. For instance, in 2021 an estimated two-thirds of quantum-related jobs worldwide went unfilled due to lack of qualified professionals, and even by 2022 about 50% of quantum positions remained vacant. Whether it’s quantum computing, sensing, or cryptography, companies are struggling to find the talent they need to commercialize breakthroughs. The workforce gap has become so critical that the White House labeled it a “national security vulnerability,” urging efforts to train and attract more quantum specialists.

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> Quantum computers hold enormous promise, but they face a stubborn adversary: decoherence. This is the process by which a qubit’s...

- Published: 2025-04-19
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/many-faces-decoherence/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum computers hold enormous promise, but they face a stubborn adversary: decoherence. This is the process by which a qubit’s fragile quantum state (its superposition or entanglement) leaks into the environment and effectively "forgets" the information it was carrying. For today’s leading quantum hardware modalities – superconducting circuits, trapped-ion qubits, neutral atoms in optical traps, photonic qubits, and semiconductor spin qubits in silicon – decoherence is the central obstacle to scalability and practical use. Understanding the sources of decoherence in each platform is crucial for scientists, engineers, and policy makers charting the future of quantum technology.

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> Quantum computers already outperform classical computers on a few specialized tasks, and over the coming years that list of tasks will grow...

- Published: 2025-04-18
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-classical/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum computers already outperform classical computers on a few specialized tasks, and over the coming years that list of tasks will grow. They excel at problems where superposition and entanglement let them explore a vast landscape of possibilities in parallel and use interference to extract an answer – factoring numbers, searching databases, simulating quantum systems, solving certain optimization problems, and more we have yet to discover. Problems that are highly structured, mathematical, or rooted in quantum physics themselves are especially “quantum-friendly.” Classical computers, on the other hand, still rule the realm of everyday computing and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future, as quantum machines are delicate and best suited for heavy lifting on very specific challenges. The likely scenario is a hybrid one: quantum co-processors accelerating key pieces of computations within larger classical systems. Significant hurdles like error correction, qubit scaling, and programming abstractions are actively being worked on by some of the brightest minds in physics and computer science. The pace of progress suggests that each new generation of quantum hardware will solve bigger problems, inching us toward the first practical, real-world quantum computing applications.

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> Logical qubits are the linchpin for delivering on the promise of quantum computing. They are the qubits as we wish we had them...

- Published: 2025-04-16
- Modified: 2025-10-26
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/logical-qubits/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Logical qubits are the linchpin for delivering on the promise of quantum computing. They are the qubits as we wish we had them – long-lived and trustworthy – brought to life by the ingenuity of quantum error correction. By encoding information across many imperfect qubits, scientists have shown they can create a single superior qubit, and the more qubits you throw at it, the better it gets. This concept transforms how we talk about quantum computing: it shifts the focus from raw qubit count to usable qubit count. Ten physical qubits are just ten fragile quantum objects, but ten logical qubits (each perhaps made from dozens of physical ones) could someday form a small quantum computer capable of non-trivial computations.

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> On April 11, 2025, the CA/Browser Forum published Ballot SC081v3, “Introduce Schedule of Reducing Validity and Data Reuse Periods,”

- Published: 2025-04-13
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/sc081v3-47day-certificate/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
On April 11, 2025, the CA/Browser Forum published Ballot SC081v3, “Introduce Schedule of Reducing Validity and Data Reuse Periods,” alongside a draft of the TLS Baseline Requirements updated for IPR review. The ballot sets a phased schedule that shrinks maximum publicly trusted TLS server certificate validity from 398 days to 200 days (March 15, 2026), then 100 days (March 15, 2027), and ultimately 47 days (March 15, 2029). In parallel, it tightens how long CAs may reuse validation evidence - most dramatically, dropping domain/IP validation reuse to just 10 days by March 15, 2029. The ballot’s rationale is not “post-quantum compliance” per se. It is a Web PKI risk‑management play: certificates are described as “point‑in‑time” assertions that become stale; misissuance and key compromise happen; and revocation mechanisms (CRLs/OCSP) are framed as insufficiently reliable at Internet scale. Shorter lifetimes and shorter validation reuse windows are positioned as proactive containment - shrinking the time that stale or improperly issued assertions can remain usable and improving the ecosystem’s ability to respond quickly to cryptographic deprecations.

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> Patents, when aligned with business goals, can attract investment, deter infringement, and provide leverage for collaboration. TTOs and innovators...

- Published: 2025-04-03
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-patents-ip/
- Categories: Quantum Commercialization
Patents, when aligned with business goals, can attract investment, deter infringement, and provide leverage for collaboration. TTOs and innovators should view IP not just as legal protection but as a core part of innovation strategy – especially in a field where today’s lab discovery might be tomorrow’s billion-dollar application. A mix of agility (to file and pivot quickly), diligence (to avoid pitfalls), and cooperation (to align with the broader ecosystem) will serve best. The quantum revolution is a marathon, not a sprint, and IP rights are the mile markers along the way, ensuring that those who push the frontiers are recognized – and rewarded – for their contributions to this transformative field.

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> If you encrypted a message with an RSA-2048 public key today, no one on Earth knows how to factor it with currently available technology...

- Published: 2025-04-02
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/breaking-rsa-quantum-hype/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
To put it plainly, if you encrypted a message with an RSA-2048 public key today, no one on Earth knows how to factor it with currently available technology, even if they threw every quantum computer and supercomputer we have at the task. That may change in the future – perhaps in a decade or even less if quantum tech continues its exponential development. Or perhaps some new algorithmic insight will emerge (the door is never completely closed in research). But the events of 2022–2025 ultimately reinforced the cautious view: quantum computing is making steady progress, but it hasn’t rendered classical encryption obsolete just yet. We should be excited by the advances – factoring 48-bit numbers with 10 qubits is a fantastic scientific achievement – without jumping to premature conclusions about the end of RSA.

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> As part of its post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization, NIST introduced five security strength categories (often labeled Levels 1-5)

- Published: 2025-04-01
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nist-pqc-security-categories/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
As part of its post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standardization, NIST introduced five security strength categories (often labeled Levels 1-5) to classify the robustness of candidate algorithms. Each category represents a minimum security level that a PQC algorithm’s cryptanalysis should require, defined by comparison to a well-understood "reference" problem in classical cryptography. In simpler terms, NIST set floors for security: if a PQC scheme claims to meet Category X, it should be at least as hard to break as solving a certain reference problem (like brute-forcing a key of a certain size or finding a hash collision). This approach avoids over-reliance on precise bit estimates (which are uncertain in the quantum era) and instead uses broad tiers of strength. The goals are to ensure apples-to-apples comparisons between algorithms, guide prudent key size transitions over time, and help designers choose appropriate symmetric primitives inside their schemes.

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> Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is here - not in theory, but in practice. We have concrete algorithms, with standards guiding their implementation

- Published: 2025-04-01
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-pqc-nist/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
- Tags: featured
Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is here - not in theory, but in practice. We have concrete algorithms, with standards guiding their implementation. They will replace our decades-old cryptographic infrastructure piece by piece over the next decade. For tech professionals, now is the time to get comfortable with lattices and new key sizes, to update libraries and protocols, and to ensure crypto agility in systems. The transition is as significant as the move from 1024-bit RSA to 2048-bit, or from SHA-1 to SHA-256, but with even bigger implications. Yet it is achievable: through careful standardization and well-vetted algorithms, we can build a quantum-resistant foundation without sacrificing performance or security.

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> Simply "dropping in" PQC algorithms will not magically make systems quantum-safe. Real security hinges on how these new primitives are...

- Published: 2025-03-25
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-not-everything/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Simply "dropping in" PQC algorithms will not magically make systems quantum-safe. Real security hinges on how these new primitives are implemented, integrated, and layered into our systems. A quantum-resistant algorithm on paper can still fail in practice due to coding bugs, side-channel leaks, protocol limitations, or misuse within a larger insecure design. In short: PQC is necessary but not sufficient. It must be one pillar of a broader, multi-layered strategy for resilience. This is especially true as we face not only future quantum-enabled adversaries, but also increasingly automated, AI-powered attacks and the ever-present toolkit of classical exploits. The only credible defense is a holistic approach that combines PQC with robust implementation practices and defense-in-depth design across our infrastructure.

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> ETSI’s Technical Committee CYBER has released ETSI TS 103 744 V1.2.1, a technical specification for quantum‑safe hybrid key establishment—methods that combine classical elliptic‑curve Diffie‑Hellman (ECDH) with post‑quantum key encapsulation (ML‑KEM) to derive shared keys that remain secure even if one component is later broken. The new version codifies two combiner constructions, enumerates fixed parameter sets, and ships with test vectors and a reference implementation to speed adoption.

- Published: 2025-03-25
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/etsi-hybrid-key-establishment/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Europe
ETSI’s Technical Committee CYBER has released ETSI TS 103 744 V1.2.1, a technical specification for quantum‑safe hybrid key establishment—methods that combine classical elliptic‑curve Diffie‑Hellman (ECDH) with post‑quantum key encapsulation (ML‑KEM) to derive shared keys that remain secure even if one component is later broken. The new version codifies two combiner constructions, enumerates fixed parameter sets, and ships with test vectors and a reference implementation to speed adoption.

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> London, UK (NCSC) - The UK’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) this week unveiled new guidance on timelines for migrating...

- Published: 2025-03-24
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/uk-ncsc-timelines-pqc/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United Kingdom
London, UK (NCSC) - The UK’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) this week unveiled new guidance on timelines for migrating to post-quantum cryptography (PQC), outlining a phased roadmap for organizations to shift their encryption methods to quantum-resistant standards by 2035. Announced just days ago, the guidance breaks down key milestones over the next decade to ensure a “smooth and controlled migration” that avoids the risks of a last-minute scramble or rushed implementations that might leave security gaps.

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> A new Nature paper highlights what might be the most “deployment-shaped” leap in satellite quantum key distribution (QKD)...

- Published: 2025-03-22
- Modified: 2026-02-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsatellite-qkd-record/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: China
A new Nature paper - and a companion Nature news story - highlights what might be the most “deployment-shaped” leap in satellite quantum key distribution (QKD) since the Micius era: Jinan‑1, a quantum microsatellite, has demonstrated real-time space-to-ground QKD using portable (~100 kg) optical ground stations, and then used that capability to enable one-time-pad encrypted image transmission between sites in China and South Africa separated by >12,900 km on Earth. The core paper (Nature, Vol 640; online 19 Mar 2025) reports that the Jinan‑1 payload is ~22.7 kg (often summarized as “~23 kg”) and the complete satellite is 95.9 kg, a substantial downshift from the ~250 kg payload / 635 kg satellite scale associated with Micius-class missions. Instead of focusing on a single flagship satellite and a handful of massive observatories, the paper is framed around what a constellation-ready architecture might look like: lightweight space hardware, small ground terminals that can be deployed in urban rooftops in hours, and enough classical bandwidth to distill keys during the same pass rather than days later.

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> The new performance analysis of Kyber and Dilithium is a welcome addition to the PQC literature. It confirms that post‑quantum security...

- Published: 2025-03-20
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/new-pqc-performance/
- Categories: Research, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Telecommunications
The new performance analysis of Kyber and Dilithium is a welcome addition to the PQC literature. It confirms that post‑quantum security and good performance are not mutually exclusive, especially when using optimized implementations. In fact, Kyber and Dilithium often outperform classical cryptography at comparable security levels. This challenges the narrative that PQC will drastically slow down our networks. At the same time, the paper reinforces my earlier message: migration is not plug‑and‑play. Larger keys and messages can disrupt protocols and devices, and side‑channel security remains paramount. Enterprises must plan for interoperability, increased memory usage, and hardware support. Hybrid deployments, staged rollouts, and thorough testing are essential.

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> Preparing for quantum computing is a grand challenge, but it’s one that crypto exchanges can tackle step by step. By addressing off-chain...

- Published: 2025-03-19
- Modified: 2025-09-29
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-crypto-exchanges/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Crypto Security
Preparing for quantum computing is a grand challenge, but it’s one that crypto exchanges can tackle step by step. By addressing off-chain vulnerabilities, fortifying custodial key management, and staying vigilant on-chain, exchanges can dramatically reduce the risk of being caught off-guard by a quantum breakthrough. The goal is not to panic, but to plan pragmatically. As one strategy guide noted, even if you can’t fix everything overnight, you can mitigate the most critical risks first and “buy time” for a full transition. Every incremental improvement - be it enforcing TLS 1.3 today or testing a Dilithium signing module in your HSM next year - adds up to a stronger posture.

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> Applied Quantum is the first and only end-to-end pure-play 100% quantum--focused professional services firm...

- Published: 2025-03-17
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/applied-quantum-focused/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Leadership
Applied Quantum is a firm that for the first time would be 100% dedicated to quantum technology services – not as a sideline, not as one emerging tech practice among many, but as the entire mission of the company, and it would cover the field end-to-end. We founded Applied Quantum to be the first and only end-to-end pure-play quantum professional services firm precisely because generalist consulting firms were not cutting it. Enterprises and governments deserve a partner that lives and breathes quantum every single day.

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> Quantum programming is an emerging discipline that challenges developers to think beyond classical bits and deterministic algorithms...

- Published: 2025-03-16
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-programming/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum programming is an emerging discipline that challenges developers to think beyond classical bits and deterministic algorithms. Instead of manipulating binary 0s and 1s, quantum programmers work with qubits that can exist in multiple states at once and harness phenomena like superposition and entanglement to perform computations in fundamentally new ways. Quantum programming demands a shift in thinking: information is encoded in probability amplitudes, operations are reversible linear transformations, and results emerge from statistical patterns rather than single-run outputs. The reward is the ability to tackle certain computational problems that are intractable for classical computers, by exploiting the exponential state space and correlations of qubits.

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> A fundamental principle called Amdahl’s Law reminds us there’s a hard limit to the speed-ups we can get...

- Published: 2025-03-15
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-amdahls-law/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Amdahl’s Law teaches us a humbling lesson about the limits of classical computing: there is always a portion that resists parallel speedup, chaining us to diminishing returns. We’ve coped by clever engineering – making that chain as short as possible – but not broken it. Quantum computing offers a bolt cutter for certain chains, freeing us from some of the constraints that have started to stall high-end computing. It fundamentally changes the rules of the game by leveraging physics in ways classical computers cannot.

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> South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy...

- Published: 2025-03-14
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-south-korea/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: South Korea
South Korea’s quantum technology ecosystem has rapidly matured from obscurity into a well-organized force. Backed by a clear national strategy and increasing investments, Korea is making its mark through cutting-edge research at top universities, substantial government support for quantum computing and communications, and active participation from industry giants and startups alike. The country’s balanced focus – on quantum computing platforms, quantum-safe communications (QKD and PQC), and quantum sensing – reflects a holistic understanding of the quantum revolution’s impact. Technical milestones like multi-qubit photonic chips, large-scale QKD deployment , and novel PQC algorithms showcase Korea’s growing R&D prowess. At the same time, initiatives such as dedicated quantum grad schools and the training of thousands of specialists ensure that human capital will not be a bottleneck. Significantly, South Korea has embedded quantum technology into its broader economic and security policies – treating it as a critical technology for the future, much like semiconductors or AI. This means support for quantum is likely to be sustained across administrations. The new Quantum Promotion Act and the high-level coordination committee provide institutional continuity.

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> D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy”

- Published: 2025-03-13
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-quantum-advantage/
- Categories: Industry, Research
- Tags: Canada
D-Wave Quantum Inc. has announced a breakthrough, claiming to achieve quantum computational advantage – even “quantum supremacy” – using its quantum annealing technology on a practical problem. In a peer-reviewed study published in Science on March 12, 2025, D-Wave’s researchers report that their 5,000+ qubit Advantage2 prototype quantum annealer outperformed one of the world’s most powerful supercomputers (Oak Ridge National Lab’s Frontier system) in simulating the quantum dynamics of a complex magnetic material . The task involved modeling programmable spin glass systems (a type of disordered magnetic material) relevant to materials science. According to D-Wave, their quantum machine found solutions in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer an estimated “nearly one million years” to match, a problem so intensive it would consume more power than the world’s annual energy supply if attempted classically .

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> NIST has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4...

- Published: 2025-03-11
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-hqc-pqc/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has announced today the selection of Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as a new post-quantum encryption candidate in its Round 4 of the Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) standardization program . HQC’s advancement is especially interesting because it is the only algorithm from NIST’s 4th round of evaluations to be chosen for standardization . This move will add a 5th algorithm to NIST’s list of quantum-resistant tools, serving as a backup encryption method alongside the four algorithms already selected in earlier rounds . For a more technical analysis of the previously-selected 4 algorithms, see: Inside NIST’s First Post-Quantum Standards: A Technical Exploration of Kyber, Dilithium, and SPHINCS+.

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> Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering...

- Published: 2025-03-06
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/fault-tolerant-erasure-qubits/
- Categories: Research
Fault-tolerant quantum architectures based on erasure qubits represent an exciting development in quantum engineering. They blend clever hardware design with advanced error-correcting codes to tackle the Achilles’ heel of quantum computers: noise. The research by Gu, Retzker, and Kubica shows that by making qubits a bit smarter about their own errors, we can significantly lower the overhead on the road to scalable quantum computing .

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> Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI...

- Published: 2025-03-06
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-middle-east/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates
Leaders in the Middle East are talking about quantum algorithms and national quantum computing hubs. And even about Quantum AI. The Middle East is determined not to miss out on the quantum revolution, and that determination is reshaping the tech narrative of this region. What’s behind this quantum push in the Middle East? Two key factors stand out: wealth from natural resources and a need to diversify economies, coupled with relative political stability. Gulf nations have long relied on oil and gas – and now they’re investing those petrodollars into technology to pivot away from hydrocarbon-dependent GDP. This access to capital, plus stable governments that can plan for the long term, forms the backbone of their quantum ambitions. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qatar are prime examples: each has strategic national visions (like Saudi’s Vision 2030 and the UAE’s Centennial 2071 plan) that highlight innovation and knowledge economies, giving quantum tech a supportive policy environment.

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> Race to fault-tolerant quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses...

- Published: 2025-03-05
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fault-tolerant-quantum-race/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: China, United States
Quantum computing is entering a new phase marked by five major announcements from five quantum powerhouses—Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft, Google, IBM, and Zuchongzhi—all in the last 4 months. Are these just hype-fueled announcements, or do they mark real progress toward useful, large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computing—and perhaps signal an accelerated timeline for “Q-Day”? Personally, I'm bullish about these announcements. Each of these reveals a different and interesting strategy for tackling the field’s biggest challenge: quantum error correction. The combined innovation pushes the file forward in a big way. But let's dig into some details.

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> China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor

- Published: 2025-03-04
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-3-0-quantum-chip/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
China’s quantum computing powerhouse, the Zuchongzhi research teams, just unveiled Zuchongzhi 3.0, a new superconducting quantum processor with 105 qubits, marking a major leap in quantum computing performance. Announced in March 2025 by a University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) team led by Pan Jianwei, Zhu Xiaobo, and Peng Chengzhi, this prototype boasts unprecedented processing speed – reportedly quadrillion ($10^15$) times faster than today’s best supercomputer and about one million times faster than Google’s latest quantum chip results announced just a few months ago.

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> Quantum computing is not just about faster computers—it represents a paradigm shift with wide-ranging geopolitical implications...

- Published: 2025-03-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-geopolitics/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies, Quantum Sovereignty
- Tags: China, Europe, Russia, United States
Quantum computing has emerged as a new frontier of great-power competition in the 21st century . Nations around the world view advanced quantum technologies as strategic assets—keys to future economic prowess, military strength, and technological sovereignty. Governments have already poured over $40 billion into quantum research and development globally , launching national initiatives and international collaborations to secure a lead in this critical domain.

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> In the 21st century, cutting-edge physics has moved from the laboratory into the realm of high geopolitics. Breakthroughs in quantum computing...

- Published: 2025-03-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/physics-quantum-cold-war/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Sovereignty
- Tags: China, Europe, Government & Defense, Russia, United States
In the 21st century, cutting-edge physics has moved from the laboratory into the realm of high geopolitics. Breakthroughs in quantum computing, advanced materials, and energy aren’t just academic - they are strategic assets coveted by nations. The situation echoes the mid-20th century, when projects like the Manhattan Project turned abstract physics into world-altering power. Today, governments are pouring billions into quantum technology and other physics-driven fields, believing that whoever leads in physics may lead the world. From quantum encryption to fusion energy, physics has become core to economic competitiveness, military strength, and diplomatic leverage. This article explores how emerging domains - from room-temperature superconductors to photonics and metamaterials - are reshaping global politics, drawing historical parallels (from the atomic bomb race to Cold War espionage), and examining how scientists and knowledge are becoming pawns in a high-stakes geopolitical game. The central thesis: physics itself is now a geopolitical battleground, even more than it used to be in the past.

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> AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest...

- Published: 2025-02-28
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ai-quantum-sensing/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing
AI and quantum sensing complement each other perfectly. Quantum sensors provide the rich, nuanced data about physical reality at its smallest scales; AI provides the means to interpret and act on that data in real time. This synergy is already evident in cutting-edge projects – from AI algorithms cleaning up quantum microscope images to autonomous navigation systems using quantum sensors plus AI to chart their course . As both technologies mature, their convergence will enable a new class of applications that neither could achieve alone.

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> In the end, funding a quantum leap is about building bridges – between lab and market, between public and private interests, and between...

- Published: 2025-02-28
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/funding-quantum-startups/
- Categories: Leadership, Quantum Commercialization
In the end, funding a quantum leap is about building bridges – between lab and market, between public and private interests, and between today’s prototypes and tomorrow’s transformative industries. Each dollar raised and each partnership forged is like adding a plank to the bridge over the Valley of Death. With a well-crafted funding strategy, today’s PhD student with a brilliant idea can become tomorrow’s CEO of a quantum powerhouse. The journey is not easy: it demands patience, storytelling, and the courage to ask for support on an unprecedented mission. But as we’ve seen, when it all comes together – when the science, the capital, and the vision align – the results are remarkable.

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> Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone...

- Published: 2025-02-28
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/aws-ocelot-quantum-chip/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
Amazon Web Services (AWS) has officially unveiled Ocelot, its first in-house quantum computing chip, marking a significant milestone in the company’s quantum ambitions. Announced on February 27, 2025, Ocelot is a prototype processor designed from the ground up to tackle quantum error correction in a more resource-efficient way. AWS claims the new chip can reduce the overhead (and thus cost) of error correction by up to 90% compared to current methods. Developed at the AWS Center for Quantum Computing (on Caltech’s campus), Ocelot is described as a breakthrough toward building fault-tolerant quantum computers – machines that could one day solve problems “beyond the reach” of today’s classical supercomputers. This announcement positions AWS alongside other tech giants in the race for quantum computing, but with a distinct focus on error-corrected quantum hardware from the outset.

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> Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we operate networks

- Published: 2025-02-27
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-telecom/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Telecommunications
Quantum computing’s impact on global telecommunications will be transformative. It holds the potential to revolutionize how we secure and operate networks, enabling levels of performance and protection previously unattainable . At the same time, it forces a reckoning with the vulnerabilities of our current systems. The journey to fully realize quantum-enhanced telecom will involve overcoming technical challenges and managing risks, but the destination – a world with fundamentally secure, high-capacity communications and perhaps even a quantum internet spanning continents – is one of extraordinary promise.

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> QuantWare has introduced Contralto‑A, a new superconducting quantum processing unit aimed specifically at advancing practical QEC...

- Published: 2025-02-27
- Modified: 2026-02-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantware-contralto-a-qpu/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: Netherlands
QuantWare has introduced Contralto‑A, a new superconducting quantum processing unit aimed specifically at advancing practical quantum error correction (QEC) development. Announced in Delft, The Netherlands, the processor is positioned for teams working on surface-code style QEC demonstrations and early fault‑tolerance roadmaps. According to the company, Contralto‑A includes up to 17 transmon qubits and tunable couplers, and is optimized to run up to a distance‑3 surface code - a commonly used early benchmark for QEC workflows. The design also incorporates additional hardware elements such as Purcell filters intended to support high‑fidelity operations, reflecting a focus on the practical engineering requirements of repeated stabilizer measurements and error‑syndrome extraction. Beyond the QPU itself, QuantWare is bundling optional training and expert support spanning both hardware usage and help in building a step‑by‑step roadmap toward larger QEC‑capable systems. The company also emphasizes compatibility with its Quantum Open Architecture, aiming to give customers hardware‑level access across the stack and flexibility to integrate preferred (or locally sourced) components as they assemble complete systems around the processor.

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> Silicon Quantum Computing demonstrates Grover's search algorithm on a four-qubit silicon processor with ~95% success rate...

- Published: 2025-02-24
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-grovers-algorithm-four-qubits/
- Categories: Research
24 Feb 2025 - There is a difference between proving you can throw a ball and proving you can play a game. For three years, silicon spin qubits have been proving they can throw: individual gate operations above the fault-tolerance threshold, entanglement between pairs and triplets of qubits, the steady accumulation of quality metrics that justify the platform's ambitions. But executing a meaningful multi-qubit algorithm — stringing together dozens of operations across multiple qubits while maintaining coherence and fidelity throughout — has remained stubbornly out of reach. Only two-qubit algorithms had been demonstrated in silicon. Until now. Silicon Quantum Computing (SQC), the Sydney-based company led by Michelle Simmons, has demonstrated Grover's search algorithm on a four-qubit silicon processor with approximately 95% probability of finding the marked state. Published in Nature Nanotechnology, the result is significant not just for the algorithm itself but for the conditions under which it was achieved: every single control operation in the processor — every single-qubit gate, every two-qubit gate, every measurement — operates above the fault-tolerant threshold. No cherry-picking, no "best-case" metrics. The entire system performs above the line. This is the first multi-qubit algorithm beyond two qubits demonstrated in silicon spin qubits. And it runs at fidelities that suggest silicon's transition from proof-of-concept to engineering platform is well underway. The Processor The SQC processor consists of three phosphorus atoms precision-placed into isotopically purified ²⁸Si using scanning tunnelling microscopy lithography — the atomic-precision fabrication technique that has been Simmons' hallmark since her group built the world's first single-atom transistor in 2012. The three phosphorus donors share a single localised electron, and the four qubits are the three nuclear spins of the phosphorus atoms plus the electron spin itself. This architecture — nuclear spins controlled and interconnected via a shared electron — gives the processor a distinctive advantage: native multi-qubit connectivity. The hyperfine interaction between each nuclear spin and the electron enables single-pulse multi-qubit gates, specifically controlled-Z operations between any pair of nuclear spins mediated by the electron. On other platforms, such all-to-all connectivity typically requires either physical qubit movement or complex gate decompositions. Here, it falls out naturally from the physics of the donor cluster.

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> In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design...

- Published: 2025-02-23
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/microsofts-majorana-1-hype/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
In February 2025, Microsoft unveiled “Majorana 1,” an eight-qubit quantum chip built on a topological qubit architecture – a first-of-its-kind design leveraging exotic Majorana quasiparticles. This chip uses a new material called a “topoconductor” (a specially engineered topological superconductor) made from indium arsenide and aluminum, which can host and control Majorana zero modes (MZMs) to serve as qubits. Microsoft’s announcement framed this as a paradigm shift akin to inventing the “transistor for the quantum age,” claiming that the Majorana 1 chip’s “Topological Core” could eventually scale to one million qubits on a single, palm-sized chip.

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> The gap between the hard reality of quantum engineering and the sensational way it’s often portrayed has created a fertile breeding ground...

- Published: 2025-01-29
- Modified: 2025-10-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-of-bullshit/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
The gap between the hard reality of quantum engineering and the sensational way it’s often portrayed has created a fertile breeding ground for misinformation and fraud. It ranges from innocuous exaggeration, to willful marketing spin, to serious financial scams and wild pseudoscience. Think of it as a “know your enemy” for quantum professionals: if you can spot these patterns, you’re less likely to fall for them or waste time (or money) on them.

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> On January 16 2025 President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14144, “Strengthening and Promoting Innovation in the Nation’s Cybersecurity.”

- Published: 2025-01-19
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/executive-order-14144-quantum/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
On January 16 2025 President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14144, “Strengthening and Promoting Innovation in the Nation’s Cybersecurity.” The 17‑page directive is the administration’s most comprehensive cyber policy since EO 14028 in 2021 and, for the first time, embeds post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) migration deadlines directly in federal law. At its core the order: Puts PQC on a clock. CISA must publish, within 180 days, a list of product categories where PQC‑capable solutions are “widely available.” Agencies then have 90 days to make PQC support a mandatory requirement in any new solicitation for those products, and they must enable PQC or “hybrid” key‑establishment as soon as practicable on networks that already support it.

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> Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point...

- Published: 2025-01-16
- Modified: 2025-12-17
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-healthcare/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Healthcare & Medical Research
Quantum computing has the potential to reshape global healthcare and medical research in the coming decades. From our current vantage point, we can see glimmers of its future impact: prototype quantum algorithms already accelerating drug discovery, early collaborations bringing quantum hardware into hospital research labs, and quantum-inspired methods optimizing healthcare operations in ways that improve patient care. As the technology evolves from today’s nascent systems to tomorrow’s fault-tolerant quantum computers, the scale of disruption and advancement will only grow.

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> By combining classical and post-quantum cryptographic primitives in tandem, hybrid schemes provide defense-in-depth during this transition...

- Published: 2025-01-15
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/hybrid-cryptography-pqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
By combining classical and post-quantum cryptographic primitives in tandem, hybrid schemes provide defense-in-depth during this transition period. In practice, a hybrid approach might mean performing both a traditional elliptic-curve key exchange and a post-quantum key exchange inside the same protocol, or signing a document with both an ECDSA signature and a Dilithium (post-quantum) signature. The result is that an attacker would need to break all the algorithms in the combination - both classical and post-quantum - to compromise the system. This approach hedges our bets: even if one component (say RSA or a new PQC scheme) is eventually broken, the other still stands in the adversary’s way. For security leaders and engineers, hybrid cryptography has quickly moved from academic discussion to real-world deployment. In this article, we’ll explore why hybrid cryptography is crucial, survey how it’s being implemented across major applications (TLS, SSH, VPNs, PKI, software signing, etc.), review the post-quantum algorithms driving these changes, and distill guidance from standards bodies like NIST and NSA on navigating the journey from today’s hybrids to a fully quantum-safe future. We’ll draw on examples from Cloudflare, Google, AWS, OpenSSH and others who have piloted these techniques - including the surprises and operational issues they’ve encountered - to provide a comprehensive, practitioner-focused view.

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> NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project

- Published: 2025-01-09
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-sp-800-227-ipd/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
NIST has just released the initial public draft of CSWP 48, part of its Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography project: "Mappings of Migration to PQC Project Capabilities to NIST Cybersecurity Framework 2.0 and to Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations."

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> Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a security technology that leverages quantum physics to enable two parties to share secret encryption keys

- Published: 2025-01-08
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-key-distribution-qkd-cyber/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a cutting-edge security technology that leverages quantum physics to enable two parties to share secret encryption keys with unprecedented security guarantees. Unlike classical key exchange methods whose security rests on computational assumptions, QKD’s security is rooted in the laws of physics – any eavesdropping attempt will unavoidably disturb the quantum signals and reveal itself. With large-scale quantum computers on the horizon threatening to break classical cryptography, QKD is emerging as an important tool in the cybersecurity arsenal. Cybersecurity professionals should be aware of QKD as part of “quantum readiness” efforts they are all about to embark on.

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> Chinese researchers published “A First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 Integer by D-Wave Quantum Computer.” Not even close!

- Published: 2025-01-07
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/factorization-rsa-2048-chinese-claim/
- Categories: Research, Quantum Security & PQC
Chinese researchers published “A First Successful Factorization of RSA-2048 Integer by D-Wave Quantum Computer.” To get straight to the point - the title is misleading. The authors did NOT factor a general RSA-2048 key (as used in real cryptography); instead, they factored a specially structured 2048-bit semiprime chosen to be extremely easy.

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> Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) has introduced an unconventional paradigm in quantum computing called Entropy Quantum Computing (EQC)

- Published: 2025-01-03
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/entropy-quantum-computing-qci/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: United States
Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI) has introduced an unconventional paradigm in quantum computing called Entropy Quantum Computing (EQC). Unlike the standard approach of isolating qubits in pristine, ultra-cold environments, QCI’s method intentionally embraces environmental noise and loss as part of the computation. Their quantum processors, optical devices operating at room temperature, leverage photons and a bit of chaos to solve complex optimization problems.

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> We are transitioning from the NISQ era into the realm of FTQC, with an eye on the ultimate prize dubbed FASQ

- Published: 2024-12-31
- Modified: 2025-10-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/nisq-ftqc-fasq/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
The dream of quantum computing is inching closer to reality, but between our current noisy prototypes and tomorrow’s transformative machines lies a daunting gulf. In the language of the field, we are transitioning from the NISQ era into the realm of FTQC, with an eye on the ultimate prize dubbed FASQ. These acronyms - Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum, Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computing, and Fault-Tolerant Application-Scale Quantum - chart the evolution of quantum computers from today’s limited devices to future error-corrected engines of discovery. Decoding the Acronyms: NISQ, FTQC, and FASQ NISQ - Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum “NISQ” rhymes with “risk,” as its originator John Preskill likes to note. Preskill, a theoretical physicist at Caltech, coined the term in 2018 to describe the era we’re in now. “Intermediate-Scale” refers to quantum processors with tens or hundreds of qubits - enough that we can’t brute-force simulate them easily with classical supercomputers. They are noisy because these qubits are error-prone and not protected by full error correction. In essence, NISQ devices are impressive feats of engineering and have achieved quantum advantage in laboratory tests - performing tasks too complex for classical simulation. However, they remain research prototypes: their operations suffer from decoherence and gate errors, limiting their computational power.

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> In a landmark experiment, Google Quantum AI researchers have demonstrated the first quantum memory operating below the QEC threshold...

- Published: 2024-12-31
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/google-surface-code-threshold/
- Categories: Systems & Engineering, Industry
In a landmark experiment, Google Quantum AI researchers have demonstrated the first quantum memory operating below the error-correction threshold on a superconducting processor. Using two new “Willow” quantum chips of 72 and 105 qubits, the team ran surface code error-correction cycles that actually outperformed the best physical qubits, a long-sought milestone in quantum computing. For the larger distance-7 surface code (spanning 101 physical qubits), they measured a logical error rate of only ~0.143% per cycle – about half the error seen in a smaller distance-5 code on the same device. This >2× error suppression (Λ ≈ 2.14) when increasing the code size is a clear signature of below-threshold operation. In practical terms, the logical qubit’s lifetime more than doubled compared to even the best single qubit on the chip. The result, reported in Nature, marks the first time a quantum error-correction code has improved qubit fidelity in the real world, validating a core principle of fault-tolerant quantum computing.

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> Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap...

- Published: 2024-12-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/russia-50-qubit-quantum/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Russia
Russian scientists have unveiled the country’s first prototype quantum computer to achieve 50 qubits, marking a significant leap in its national quantum program . Researchers at Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) and the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) developed the 50-qubit device using neutral rubidium atoms as quantum bits . The prototype was successfully tested on December 19, 2024, just in time to meet a government-backed 2020 roadmap goal of building a 50-qubit system by end of 2024 . This accomplishment positions Russia among a select group of nations with quantum processors at the 50-qubit scale, a benchmark long pursued in the global race for quantum computing capabilities .

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> For the world at large, China’s quantum leap is a call to action. It challenges other nations to invest in innovation and pushes the envelope...

- Published: 2024-12-30
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/china-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: China
In little over a decade, China transformed from a minor player into a quantum technology powerhouse. The talent has matured, and a new generation of Chinese quantum scientists is coming into its own – many trained at top universities domestically and abroad, now supported by some of the best facilities in the world. Looking forward, we can expect China’s quantum momentum to continue. The Chinese government has signaled that quantum R&D will remain a high priority in its upcoming plans (2030 and beyond), ensuring steady funding and political support. The Hefei national quantum lab will likely become fully operational, hosting thousands of researchers and housing next-generation equipment to push the boundaries in both computing and sensing. Additional quantum satellites are planned: China aims to launch higher-orbit quantum satellites (in medium Earth orbit) for wider coverage and perhaps even quantum-enabled global navigation satellites. By 2030, China envisions a functional global quantum communications network – one can imagine a constellation of Mozi-like satellites linking not just Chinese cities but potentially friendly regions in Asia, the Middle East, or Africa, offering secure comms services. Such a network might integrate with fiber links to form the backbone of a nascent quantum internet. In quantum computing, China will press toward larger and more robust quantum machines.

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> ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s...

- Published: 2024-12-27
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-singapore-asean/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: ASEAN, Singapore
ASEAN’s journey in quantum technology is relatively recent but steadily gaining momentum. Singapore took the lead in the early 2000s – the National Research Foundation began funding quantum research as early as 2002, and by 2007 the government helped establish the Centre for Quantum Technologies (CQT) at the National University of Singapore. CQT was a milestone for the region, bringing together physicists, computer scientists, and engineers to explore quantum physics and build prototype quantum devices. Over the subsequent decade, CQT’s researchers published around 2,000 scientific papers and trained more than 60 PhD students, seeding a generation of quantum scientists in Southeast Asia. This early start positioned Singapore as the region’s quantum research hub. Other ASEAN members followed in the 2010s: research groups and academic programs in Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia began exploring quantum information science, albeit on a smaller scale.

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> Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics...

- Published: 2024-12-26
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-russia/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: Russia
Russia’s engagement with quantum science dates back to the Soviet era, which produced a strong foundation of theoretical physics and early quantum experiments. This legacy endures in the modern era – Russian experts often note that the “Soviet school of quantum physics was one of the best in the world,” providing a deep talent pool for today’s initiatives. In the 2010s, Russia began explicitly organizing its quantum research efforts. A key milestone was the establishment of the Russian Quantum Center (RQC) in 2010 at the Skolkovo innovation hub as a private research institution focused on fundamental and applied quantum physics. RQC quickly garnered support, securing over 2 billion rubles (~€30 million) in funding from competitive grants and private investors like Gazprombank. This signaled a public-private interest in keeping pace with the “second quantum revolution.” Soon after, regional centers emerged (e.g. a quantum center in Kazan in 2014) and Russian universities expanded quantum research programs.

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> The Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), introduced in 2014, has rapidly become a flagship algorithm for simulating ground-state properties...

- Published: 2024-12-25
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/variational-quantum-eigensolver-vqe/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
The Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE), introduced in 2014, has rapidly become a flagship algorithm for simulating ground-state properties on today’s noisy quantum computers. Rather than running long quantum circuits, VQE uses short circuits and a classical optimizer in tandem: the quantum processor prepares a trial wavefunction with adjustable parameters, and a classical computer iteratively tweaks those parameters to minimize the measured energy. This hybrid approach was first developed to find molecular ground-state energies , and it has since been adapted to a broad range of problems in chemistry and physics. In the past few years, researchers in academia and industry (including IBM, Google, and Microsoft) have achieved a series of notable VQE milestones – from accurately computing the energies of real molecules to probing strongly correlated materials and even simple nuclear systems.

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> China's 504-qubit Tianyan-504 goes live on the Tianyan quantum cloud, making it one of the largest commercially accessible quantum processors

- Published: 2024-12-18
- Modified: 2026-04-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/tianyan-504/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
18 Dec 2024 - The Tianyan-504, China's most powerful quantum computer, was formally unveiled on December 5, 2024 and is slated for integration into China Telecom's Tianyan quantum computing cloud platform, where it will be accessible to users worldwide. The announcement, made through Xinhua and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, marks the next stage for the 504-qubit Xiaohong chip: from laboratory test platform to the centerpiece of a commercially accessible quantum computing service. The unveiling was a coordinated effort by three organizations: the China Telecom Quantum Group (CTQG), the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics, and QuantumCTek Co., Ltd. CTQG, a wholly owned subsidiary of China Telecom established in May 2023 with approximately 3 billion yuan (~$430 million) in investment, operates the Tianyan platform from its headquarters in Hefei, Anhui Province. CTQG claims the Xiaohong chip's performance — qubit lifetime, gate fidelity, and readout fidelity — matches that of leading international cloud quantum platforms, specifically naming IBM as the benchmark. No peer-reviewed data has been published to substantiate this comparison. What is known is that the chip's primary engineering purpose remains unchanged from when it was first delivered to QuantumCTek earlier this year: validating a domestically developed kilo-qubit measurement and control system that will underpin China's next generation of larger quantum processors. The Tianyan cloud platform, launched in November 2023, has already attracted over 12 million visits from users in more than 50 countries. Wang Zhen, CTQG's deputy general manager, stated that the company will work with QuantumCTek to build a full quantum computer around the Xiaohong chip and enable researchers globally to access the platform for practical algorithm development.

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> Contrarianism in quantum tech, as in any tech, is best viewed as a tool, not a truth. It’s a tool for questioning and refining the narrative...

- Published: 2024-12-18
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-contrarianism/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Leadership
Contrarianism in quantum tech, as in any tech, is best viewed as a tool, not a truth. It’s a tool for questioning and refining the narrative, for ensuring we don’t delude ourselves. But it is not the final truth of what the technology will or will not achieve – that truth will be revealed only through continued research, engineering, and yes, a bit of imagination. As the contrarians often remind us, “extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” They are correct. The extraordinary claim is that quantum computing will transform computing; the burden is on us in the field to provide evidence, step by step, that this claim can be realized. Until then, skepticism keeps us honest. However, I’ll finish with this thought: skepticism, too, should be kept honest. It must be evidence-based and ready to adapt as new facts emerge.

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> Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing...

- Published: 2024-12-11
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-willow-quantum-chip/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
Google has unveiled a new quantum processor named “Willow”, marking a major milestone in the race toward practical quantum computing. The 105-qubit Willow chip demonstrates two breakthroughs that have long eluded researchers: it dramatically reduces error rates as qubit count scales up, and it completed a computational task in minutes that would take a classical supercomputer longer than the age of the universe. These achievements suggest Google’s quantum hardware is edging closer to the threshold of useful quantum advantage, paving the way for large-scale systems that could outperform classical computers on real-world problems.

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> Quantum technologies introduce a new era for cybersecurity – one that is simultaneously perilous and full of potential.

- Published: 2024-12-01
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-cybersecurity/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum technologies introduce a new era for cybersecurity – one that is simultaneously perilous and full of potential. On the threat side, the advent of quantum computers threatens to upend the cryptographic protections we rely on daily, making it imperative that we transition to quantum-safe methods before quantum attackers emerge. At the same time, on the defense side, quantum physics offers unprecedented tools to achieve security guarantees that were previously unattainable, from unbreakable key exchange to unclonable IDs and beyond. The coming years will see a race: deploying post-quantum cryptography across the internet, rolling out hybrid solutions and QKD for critical links, and exploring cutting-edge ideas like quantum-enhanced cyber AI and authentication. It’s a race against time – against the moment a quantum computer roars to life and against sophisticated adversaries investing in quantum R&D – but it’s also a race toward a more secure future, where we harness quantum power for good. For cybersecurity professionals, the message is clear. Stay informed about quantum developments, both the risks and the solutions. Begin assessing your cryptographic inventory now and follow the progress of NIST standards and vendor implementations to plan upgrades. Where appropriate, consider trials of quantum technologies like QKD or QRNG, especially if you handle data with a long shelf life or of extremely high sensitivity. Develop a quantum risk management strategy: this might include crypto-agility (easy swap of algorithms), doubling key lengths for symmetric crypto, and even contractual clauses with cloud providers or partners about quantum-safe practices.

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> Researchers have developed specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance...

- Published: 2024-11-28
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-benchmarks/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
As quantum computing hardware rapidly improves, simple metrics like qubit count are no longer sufficient to gauge a system’s true capability. Unlike classical computers where transistor counts roughly correlate with performance, quantum bits (qubits) can be error-prone and short-lived, so a few high-fidelity qubits can be more valuable than many noisy ones. This has led researchers to develop specialized benchmarks that capture different aspects of quantum computing performance – from the ability to perform classically intractable tasks to the effective computational power and reliability of a device.

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> Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem...

- Published: 2024-11-28
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/adiabatic-quantum-annealing-cyber/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is an alternative paradigm that uses an analog process based on the quantum adiabatic theorem. Instead of discrete gate operations, AQC involves slowly evolving a quantum system’s Hamiltonian such that it remains in its lowest-energy (ground) state, effectively “computing” the solution as the system’s final state . AQC and its practical subset known as quantum annealing are particularly geared toward solving optimization problems by finding minima of cost functions.

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> Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor...

- Published: 2024-11-20
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-europe-eu/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: Europe
Europe’s quantum technology landscape has evolved from disparate academic projects into a coordinated multi-billion euro endeavor encompassing the EU and its member states. The historical commitment to quantum science is now manifesting in tangible outputs: prototype quantum computers in laboratories and supercomputing centers, quantum-secure communication testbeds linking cities, and quantum sensors poised to revolutionize measurements from under the Earth to outer space. The European Union’s flagship program and national quantum strategies in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and elsewhere have created a momentum that engages both prestigious research institutions (ETH Zurich, CNRS, Max Planck Society, etc.) and a growing quantum startup sector (Pasqal, IQM, Atos, and many more).

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> IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor - Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio

- Published: 2024-11-20
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-heron-r2-quantum/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
IBM has announced a new 156-qubit quantum processor called Heron R2, marking a significant upgrade to its quantum computing hardware portfolio. The Heron R2 chip is the second-generation follow-up to IBM’s 133-qubit “Heron” processor introduced in late 2023. Building on its predecessor, the Heron R2 not only adds more qubits but also delivers major improvements in qubit coherence, gate fidelity, and overall computational efficiency. IBM researchers report that the new system can execute quantum circuits with up to 5,000 two-qubit gate operations, nearly doubling the 2,880 two-qubit gate depth achieved in IBM’s 2023 benchmark.

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> While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity . As quantum computing moves into cloud...

- Published: 2024-11-19
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-hacking/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Networks
While these machines are not yet widespread, it is never too early to consider their cybersecurity . As quantum computing moves into cloud platforms and multi-user environments, attackers will undoubtedly seek ways to exploit them.

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> In November 2024, the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) released NIST Internal Report 8547 (Initial Public Draft)

- Published: 2024-11-14
- Modified: 2026-02-14
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/nist-ir-8547-ipd/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
In November 2024, the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) released NIST Internal Report 8547 (Initial Public Draft), titled “Transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography Standards.” This document serves as a strategic roadmap for phasing out today’s quantum-vulnerable cryptography (like RSA and ECC) and migrating to post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) standards. The draft lays out timelines, new standards, and guidance to ensure that organizations - from government agencies to industry - can securely transition before large quantum computers arrive. It aligns with federal directives such as National Security Memorandum 10, which targets 2035 as the deadline for mitigating quantum risks across Federal systems. In practical terms, NIST IR 8547 proposes that by 2035 all standard-approved uses of legacy public-key algorithms (RSA/ECC) should be retired or replaced with quantum-resistant solutions. Deprecating RSA and ECC – Timeline to 2035 A centerpiece of IR 8547 is its transition timeline for classical algorithms. NIST makes it clear that widely used public-key schemes like RSA (finite-field cryptography) and ECC (elliptic-curve cryptography) have a ticking clock due to quantum threats. Following U.S. government policy, the year 2035 is set as a firm deadline to “remove quantum-vulnerable algorithms” from cryptographic standards. In fact, NIST plans to start phasing them out even sooner: common algorithms that provide ~112 bits of security (for example, RSA-2048 or ECC P-256) are slated to be “deprecated” by 2030, meaning they should no longer be used for new systems after that point. By 2035, any remaining use of RSA/ECC (even at higher strengths like 3072-bit RSA or P-384) will be disallowed in NIST standards. This accelerated schedule updates earlier NIST plans that had 2031 as a phase-out for weaker keys – reflecting the newfound urgency of the quantum threat.

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> The Banque de France (BDF) and the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) have successfully completed a groundbreaking...

- Published: 2024-11-06
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/banque-de-france-mas-pqc/
- Categories: Industry, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: ASEAN, Finance & Banking, France, Payments, Singapore
The Banque de France (BDF) and the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) have successfully completed a groundbreaking cross-border experiment in post-quantum cryptography (PQC), carried out between Paris and Singapore using ordinary internet infrastructure. This joint trial marks an important milestone in fortifying digital communications against future quantum-enabled cyber threats. By demonstrating quantum-resistant encryption and digital signatures on real-world email systems, the project showcases tangible progress toward protecting sensitive data in the financial sector from the looming risk of quantum computer attacks.

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> At its core, QAOA is a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that constructs a special kind of quantum circuit (or “ansatz”) to represent...

- Published: 2024-11-06
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-approximate-optimization-algorithm-qaoa/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
At its core, QAOA is a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that constructs a special kind of quantum circuit (or “ansatz”) to represent a candidate solution, and then uses a classical optimizer to tweak that circuit for better results. It was introduced in 2014 by Edward Farhi and collaborators as an algorithm that “produces approximate solutions for combinatorial optimization problems” and that improves in quality as you increase a certain parameter p (which controls the circuit’s depth). In essence, QAOA is like a recipe with two key quantum ingredients that you alternate: one ingredient encodes the problem’s objective, and the other ingredient helps explore the search space. By alternating these ingredients p times (where p can be 1, 2, 3, …), you “cook up” a quantum state that hopefully concentrates a lot of probability on good solutions. Then you measure the quantum state to get an actual solution (a bitstring), and use classical feedback to adjust the cooking process (the angles or durations for each ingredient) to get an even better outcome. This loop repeats until we’re satisfied with the solution quality.

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> Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with capabilities of AI...

- Published: 2024-10-31
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-ai-qai/
- Categories: Quantum AI
Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) is an interdisciplinary field that merges the power of quantum computing with the learning capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI) . In essence, QAI seeks to use quantum computing—which exploits phenomena like superposition and entanglement—to run AI algorithms that learn from data and make decisions, potentially far more efficiently than on classical computers . This fusion promises to create more powerful and intelligent systems than those currently possible with classical computing alone .

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> At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately...

- Published: 2024-10-30
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-use-cases/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing
At its core, quantum sensing goes beyond classical measurement limits. Traditional sensors – from thermometers to microphones – are ultimately constrained by thermal noise, electronic noise, and even the fundamental “shot noise” of particles. Quantum sensors break past these limits by exploiting the quirky properties of quantum mechanics, like superposition and entanglement. In a quantum sensor, particles (atoms, electrons, photons) are prepared in delicate quantum states that respond to minuscule changes in the environment. Because of this, quantum devices can detect tiny signals with precision beyond any classical strategy.

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> CISA released a landmark report titled ”Post-Quantum Considerations for Operational Technology.” This publication marks the first...

- Published: 2024-10-28
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/dhs-cisa-pqc-ot/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) released a landmark report titled ”Post-Quantum Considerations for Operational Technology.” This publication marks the first dedicated federal guidance on how quantum computing threats specifically impact industrial control systems (ICS) and other operational technology (OT) environments. The report comes with a clear warning: OT systems could lag behind IT in achieving quantum-resistant security, potentially becoming”the last remaining platforms to achieve post-quantum cryptographic standards due to long software patching cycles, hardware replacement times, and strict procedures and governance”. For Chief Information Security Officers (CISOs) overseeing critical infrastructure, this message is a wake-up call.

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> Quantum Machine Learning (Quantum ML or QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional ML

- Published: 2024-10-16
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-machine-learning-qml/
- Categories: Quantum AI
Quantum Machine Learning (QML) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that integrates quantum computing with traditional machine learning. The motivation is simple: as data grows and models become more complex, classical computing faces limitations in speed and capacity. Quantum computers leverage principles like superposition and entanglement to process information in fundamentally new ways, which could provide drastic improvements for certain computational tasks .

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> Organizations must embrace both the ethical principles that guide responsible development and the technical rigor required to secure AI systems...

- Published: 2024-10-04
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-principles-reality-gap/
- Categories: AI Security
In pursuit of AI systems that are ethical and robust we are seeing the emergence of an, ironically, ethical challenge: firms rushing to position themselves as leaders in Responsible AI without the necessary depth in technical expertise. Though their motivations for doing so may not be malicious, the impact is the dilution of the AI security field, something which society cannot afford as AI becomes more and more integrated into our workplaces, homes and everyday life.

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> Gartner just published a clear, plain‑English call to action on post‑quantum cryptography (PQC). The headline message is...

- Published: 2024-10-01
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/gartner-quantum-pqc/
- Categories: Industry
Gartner just published a clear, plain‑English call to action on post‑quantum cryptography (PQC). The headline message is blunt: “Quantum computing will render traditional cryptography unsafe by 2029.” As someone who spends a lot of time helping enterprises inventory their crypto, map risks, and plan migrations, I welcome this. Enterprises listen to Gartner; a concrete date tends to galvanize roadmaps, budgets, and executive attention in a way that vague “someday” risks never do. Even better, Gartner’s piece doesn’t hedge on timing for action: begin transitioning now.

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> A recent statement by the G7 Cyber Expert Group (CEG) sounds a dual alarm and call to action on quantum computing. In a memo...

- Published: 2024-09-29
- Modified: 2026-02-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/g7-cyber-quantum/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
A recent statement by the G7 Cyber Expert Group (CEG) - an advisory panel to G7 finance ministries and central banks - sounds a dual alarm and call to action on quantum computing. In a memo released in late September, the group highlights quantum computing as both a revolutionary opportunity and a looming cyber risk for the financial system. The CEG’s message is clear: while quantum technology promises unprecedented computational power that could transform finance, it also threatens to upend the cryptographic foundations of cybersecurity. Financial institutions are urged to act now to harness the benefits and mitigate the risks before it’s too late.

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> The landscape of careers in quantum technologies is incredibly rich and expanding by the day. What was once the domain of a few physicists...

- Published: 2024-09-28
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/careers-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Leadership
The landscape of careers in quantum technologies is incredibly rich and expanding by the day. What was once the domain of a few theoretical physicists is now a broad industry ecosystem hungry for talent from all backgrounds: software, hardware, analytics, management, and more. The driving premise is that you do not need to be an elite quantum physicist to contribute. The opportunities are as varied as they are pioneering. And beyond the technical roles, there’s ample room for creative communicators, strategic thinkers, and bold entrepreneurs to shape how quantum tech will roll out globally. So take the leap - the quantum industry needs you, and the possibilities are endless.

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> New technologies bring not only breakthroughs but also new risks and dilemmas - and quantum computing is no exception.

- Published: 2024-09-25
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-ethics/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Policies
New technologies bring not only breakthroughs but also new risks and dilemmas - and quantum computing is no exception. Quantum computers promise to solve problems beyond the reach of classical machines, from cracking complex optimization puzzles to simulating new drugs and materials. Yet experts warn that quantum’s “known unknowns” include serious ethical challenges arising from potential abuse, misuse, or unintended consequences. In other words, along with unprecedented computational power, quantum technology could usher in threats to cybersecurity, privacy, equity, and even global stability. History has shown that waiting too long to address ethical pitfalls can be costly; for example, social media scaled up rapidly before society grasped its harms, resulting in misinformation, privacy crises, and societal disruptions. Learning from these lessons, now is the perfect time to start the quantum ethics conversation - before quantum computing becomes ubiquitous. With widespread quantum adoption looming (one forecast predicts 25% of Fortune 500 companies will be using quantum tech within a few years), technology leaders and policymakers have a brief window to establish ethical guardrails proactively.

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> Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning...

- Published: 2024-09-14
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-australia/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: Australia
Australia’s quantum technology journey has progressed from pioneering academic experiments to a coordinated national endeavor spanning government, academia, and industry. The country has built a solid foundation with landmark research in quantum computing (particularly in silicon qubit hardware and error correction) and has extended its expertise to quantum communications and sensing applications. With the National Quantum Strategy and increased funding, Australia is doubling down on its strengths – aiming to translate its scientific leadership into economic opportunities and strategic capabilities. The coming years will test Australia’s ability to scale up prototype quantum devices, train and attract a specialized workforce, and foster startups into global competitors. The government’s backing and policy support, combined with the agility of Australian startups and the knowledge base of its universities, bode well for continued progress.

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> Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity...

- Published: 2024-09-10
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-quantum-ai-qai/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, AI Security, Quantum AI
Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) are converging fields at the forefront of cybersecurity. PQC aims to develop cryptographic algorithms that can withstand attacks by quantum computers, while QAI explores the use of quantum computing and AI to both break and bolster cryptographic systems.

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> Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation...

- Published: 2024-09-09
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-aerospace-automotive/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Aerospace & Automotive
Quantum computing is on the verge of reshaping the future of both aerospace and automotive sectors, even if the technology’s full maturation is still years away. In this article, we’ve seen that current developments – from corporate partnerships and research alliances to early quantum prototypes tackling real use cases – have already laid the groundwork. Automotive companies are using quantum algorithms in pilot projects to optimize everything from battery chemistry to factory logistics, and aerospace engineers are testing quantum methods for design optimization and materials discovery.

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> Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector...

- Published: 2024-08-31
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-finance-banking/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Finance & Banking
Quantum computing is no longer just a physics lab curiosity; it’s emerging as a strategic frontier for the Finance and Banking sector. Quantum technologies hold the potential to transform financial services – improving risk management, turbocharging trading and analytics, enhancing cybersecurity, and even forcing a paradigm shift in how data is secured. Banks and institutions around the world are investing in research and partnerships to stay quantum-ready, recognizing both the competitive opportunities and the existential threats that quantum computing brings.

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> India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting...

- Published: 2024-08-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/india-6-qubit-quantum-processor/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: India
India has achieved a significant quantum computing milestone with its first successful test of a homegrown 6-qubit superconducting quantum processor. A team of scientists from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), and Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) completed end-to-end testing of the 6-qubit device, marking a major step in India’s quantum research efforts . This prototype – the country’s first quantum chip based on superconducting circuits – demonstrates India’s entry into the quantum hardware arena, a field dominated so far by only a few nations.

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> Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises...

- Published: 2024-08-30
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-government-defense/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Government & Defense
Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping government and defense, much as radar or the internet did in earlier eras. It promises enhancements across the board – unbreakable communications, unprecedented computing power for logistics and AI, new sensors that reveal hidden threats, and simulations that accelerate innovation. It also carries profound disruptive potential, especially for cybersecurity, meaning it can just as easily undermine a nation that is unprepared.

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> Addressing the Full Stack of AI Concerns: Responsible AI, Trustworthy AI, Secure AI, Ethical AI, and Safe AI Explained

- Published: 2024-08-23
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/responsible-ai-secure-ai/
- Categories: AI Security, Quantum AI
- Tags: featured
As AI continues to evolve and integrate deeper into societal frameworks, the strategies for its governance, alignment, and security must also advance, ensuring that AI enhances human capabilities without undermining human values. This requires a vigilant, adaptive approach that is responsive to new challenges and opportunities, aiming for an AI future that is as secure as it is progressive.

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> The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system...

- Published: 2024-08-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/us-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: United States
The United States has entered a new phase of quantum technology development – one marked by large-scale engineering challenges and system integration, rather than just laboratory science. The next decade will be critical. If current trends hold, we will witness U.S. quantum computers tackling problems that were impossible before, quantum communications protecting real-world data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that society relies on. The U.S. has laid a strong foundation through its national initiatives, research excellence, and industry agility. Maintaining leadership will require sustained investment, a continued focus on education and talent, and smart partnerships between government, academia, and industry.

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> CISA has released a “Strategy for Migrating to Automated Post-Quantum Cryptography Discovery and Inventory Tools”

- Published: 2024-08-17
- Modified: 2026-02-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/cisa-automate-crypto-inventory/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) has released a “Strategy for Migrating to Automated Post-Quantum Cryptography Discovery and Inventory Tools” on August 15, 2024. In essence, this strategy is a roadmap for federal civilian agencies to identify where they are using cryptography that will be vulnerable to quantum attacks, using automated tools to create an inventory of those systems. The release comes in direct response to White House directives – notably OMB Memorandum M-23-02 (issued Nov 2022) and National Security Memorandum-10 (NSM-10) – which called for urgent preparation for post-quantum cryptography (PQC) across the federal government. CISA’s strategy, developed in consultation with NIST and NSA, lays out who needs to act (federal civilian agencies), what needs to be done (automate cryptographic inventory), when (starting now, with milestones through the late 2020s), why (the looming threat of quantum computers that could break today’s encryption), and how (by developing Automated Cryptography Discovery and Inventory tools integrated into existing security programs). Why now? National Security Memo-10 warns that a future cryptanalytically-relevant quantum computer (CRQC) could eventually crack widely used encryption, jeopardizing federal systems. Adversaries might even steal encrypted data now and decrypt it later once quantum capabilities are available – a “harvest-now, decrypt-later” scenario. In light of this, OMB’s memo M-23-02 mandated agencies to inventory all cryptographic systems using quantum-vulnerable algorithms (think RSA, ECC, Diffie-Hellman, etc.) and report those to the Office of the National Cyber Director (ONCD) and CISA. That memo also tasked CISA to devise a strategy for automated tooling to support tracking progress toward adopting PQC. CISA’s newly published strategy fulfills that task – providing a game plan to use automation for discovering cryptography in use and measuring agencies’ migration progress.

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> NIST has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms...

- Published: 2024-08-13
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-pqc-standards/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has officially announced the release of its first set of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards, naming four quantum-resistant algorithms selected to protect data against future quantum-computer attacks. These four algorithms – CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, FALCON, and SPHINCS+ – emerged as the winners of NIST’s multi-year global competition to develop encryption and digital signature schemes that can withstand attacks from quantum computers.

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> Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty...

- Published: 2024-08-12
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/myths-quantum-commercialization/
- Categories: Quantum Commercialization
Quantum commercialization is hard; there’s no sugar-coating that. But as we’ve seen, “hard” is not “impossible,” and early difficulty does not mean it’s “too early.” The myths we unpacked – that quantum is always 20 years away, that only giants can play, that no market exists, that we can passively wait to license, or that generic support will do – all share a common trait: they underestimate the momentum and ingenuity already at work in the quantum ecosystem. The reality is that in labs and startups across the world, quantum technologies are taking their first steps into the marketplace. University spin-outs are building actual devices and software, signing on pilot customers, and attracting investment, thereby proving these myths wrong one by one. Each trapped-ion module sold, each quantum-secure communication link deployed, each optimization algorithm tested on a quantum processor is a brick in the road from research to industry. That road is being paved now, not in some distant future. And like any new road, it pays to have a good map. Specialized accelerators, government initiatives, and services such as Quantum TTO – which provides domain-specific commercialization guidance – are part of that map.

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> Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal...

- Published: 2024-08-07
- Modified: 2025-10-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-canada/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: Canada
Canada has established itself as a major hub of quantum technology research, and its recent initiatives aim to translate that strength into societal and economic benefits. The country’s National Quantum Strategy, with its coordinated missions in computing, communications, and sensing, provides a roadmap for the next stage of quantum innovation in Canada . In the immediate future, we can expect to see a ramp-up of activity on several fronts. Quantum computing hardware developed by Canadian companies will continue to advance: D-Wave is slated to deliver new generations of annealers and is working toward a gate-model quantum processor, while Xanadu is on track to refine its photonic qubit technology with the long-term goal of a fault-tolerant quantum computer. These efforts, supported by government investment and private capital, could yield prototype quantum processors of increasing size and reliability within a few years.

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> A new July 2024 report puts a rough, government-wide price tag of ~$7.1B (2024 dollars) on PQC migration for prioritized federal...

- Published: 2024-07-31
- Modified: 2026-02-27
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/white-house-pqc-estimate/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
A new July 2024 report to Congress from the Office of Management and Budget - prepared with the Office of the National Cyber Director and in collaboration with Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency and National Institute of Standards and Technology - puts a rough, government-wide price tag of ~$7.1B (2024 dollars) on migrating prioritized federal civilian information systems to post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) over 2025–2035. The number matters less as a “precise budget” than as a policy signal: the U.S. Government is explicitly treating PQC migration as a large-scale modernization program (inventory → prioritization → interoperability testing → replacement of non‑upgradeable systems). The report repeatedly emphasizes uncertainty and calls the estimate “rough order of magnitude”, not an engineering bill of materials. For industry, this is an early but clear procurement trajectory: federal buyers will increasingly require crypto agility, PQC‑capable products, and evidence that vendors can support a staged transition without breaking interoperability. This will affect software suppliers, cloud platforms, hardware/firmware vendors, and the testing/validation ecosystem (notably the CMVP pipeline).

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> As organizations brace for cryptography-breaking quantum computers, they must first discover and classify their data to understand what’s at stake.

- Published: 2024-06-28
- Modified: 2025-12-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/data-discovery-classification-quantum/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Networks
Every CISO knows the old adage: “You can’t protect what you don’t know you have.” In the quantum readiness era, this doesn’t just apply to hardware and software assets - it applies equally to data. As organizations brace for cryptography-breaking quantum computers, they must first discover and classify their data to understand what’s at stake. Data is now scattered across on-prem servers, cloud buckets, employee devices, SaaS apps, and more. This sprawl obscures the overall data picture, making it difficult for security leaders to identify and prioritize threats. In fact, a recent CISO survey found 73% of CISOs struggle to manage data scattered across various platforms and cloud environments, leading to blind spots in visibility, control, and compliance. Simply put, “you cannot secure what you cannot see”. The Quantum Threat Puts Data in the Crosshairs The urgency around post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is clear: data encrypted today could be compromised tomorrow once sufficiently powerful quantum computers emerge. Adversaries are already executing so-called “harvest now, decrypt later” attacks - intercepting and storing encrypted data today in hopes of decrypting it in the future when quantum capabilities mature. This means the risk to long-lived sensitive data is immediate. Even if a quantum breakthrough is years away, any confidential information with a multi-year lifespan (medical records, trade secrets, state secrets, etc.) is at risk now if protected by vulnerable algorithms. In other words, short-term encryption can lead to long-term exposure.

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> Quantum-as-a-Service (QaaS) - also called Quantum Computing as a Service (QCaaS) - is essentially cloud-based access to quantum...

- Published: 2024-06-26
- Modified: 2026-02-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-as-a-service-qaas/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Open Architecture QOA
Quantum-as-a-Service (QaaS) - also called Quantum Computing as a Service (QCaaS) - is essentially cloud-based access to quantum computing resources. In simple terms, a third-party hosts quantum computers (and related software tools) in the cloud, and users access those quantum capabilities remotely over the internet. This model parallels other “as-a-Service” offerings like Software-as-a-Service or Infrastructure-as-a-Service. The cloud provider handles the complex quantum hardware and software stack, and users can run their quantum algorithms or experiments via a web portal, API, or integrated cloud platform - without needing to own or maintain any quantum hardware themselves. It’s hard to overstate how significant this is. Quantum computers are remarkably delicate and expensive machines - typically housed in specialized labs with extreme refrigeration (near absolute zero) and isolation from noise. Until recently, only a few large organizations or research labs could afford to build and operate them. QaaS breaks down this barrier by allowing time-sharing of quantum hardware similar to how timesharing on mainframes worked in the 1960s. In fact, many observers draw an analogy: early quantum computers in cloud data centers are “like the mainframes of the 1960s”, requiring large cryogenic systems and special environments, so offering remote access makes practical sense.

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> The paper’s main claim: by using approximate residue arithmetic and other optimizations, one can factor RSA-2048 with around 1730 logical qubits...

- Published: 2024-06-26
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/rsa-2048-1730-qubits/
- Categories: Research, Quantum Security & PQC
The paper’s main claim is striking: by using approximate residue arithmetic and other optimizations, one can factor an RSA-2048 number with around 1730 logical qubits – dramatically down from the ~4000–6000 logical qubits required by earlier methods. (See one of my recent posts "4,099 Qubits: The Myth and Reality of Breaking RSA-2048 with Quantum Computers" for more info on how we gt to oft-cited 4,099 qubits number.) In other words, instead of needing on the order of twice the bit-length of the RSA modulus in qubits (as older designs did), the new approach brings the requirement to roughly half the bit-length (plus some overhead). This is achieved by streamlining the modular exponentiation step in Shor’s algorithm: the authors manage to compute only the essential least significant bits of the exponentiation result on-the-fly, rather than storing the entire large number in quantum memory. By working in a Residue Number System (RNS) and truncating unneeded information, the circuit frees up qubits that would normally hold intermediate “garbage” results. It’s akin to doing long multiplication but only keeping track of the last few digits at a time – greatly reducing the scratch space needed.

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> In a June 17, 2024 press release, Quantum Machines announced the opening of the Israeli Quantum Computing Center (IQCC)...

- Published: 2024-06-19
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/engineering-news/israels-iqcc-quantum-data-center/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: Israel
In a June 17, 2024 press release, Quantum Machines announced the opening of the Israeli Quantum Computing Center (IQCC) — a new facility in Tel Aviv designed to give researchers and startups something that’s been chronically scarce in quantum computing: hands-on access to serious infrastructure, not just limited cloud time on someone else’s machine. The center is located at Tel Aviv University and was built with financial backing and support from the Israel Innovation Authority, as part of Israel’s National Quantum Initiative, according to Quantum Machines. What’s different - and strategically important - is the IQCC’s architecture. Quantum Machines is positioning it as a hybrid quantum–classical facility that co-locates multiple quantum modalities and ties them tightly to high‑performance compute and cloud resources. In the company’s framing, this is not a single “national quantum computer” as a monolith, but a scalable quantum-HPC testbed built around interoperability and modular upgrades.

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> The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will release post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms in the upcoming weeks...

- Published: 2024-05-24
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-pqc-summer/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
---

> Quantum’s big wins will come from breaking silos and working together. Universities, TTOs, scientists, entrepreneurs, investors...

- Published: 2024-05-22
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-external-tto/
- Categories: Quantum Commercialization
The race to commercialize quantum technology is on, and it’s not a sprint by a lone runner; it’s a relay. TTOs carry the baton of discovery from the lab, but to reach the finish line of market impact, they must hand off (and continuously team up) with external partners who can run the next laps. External commercialization experts provide the extra legs, the fresh perspective, and the stamina needed for quantum’s long journey to market.

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> Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering.

- Published: 2024-05-14
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-materials-chemicals/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Materials Science & Chemical Engineering
Quantum computing and associated quantum technologies are on the cusp of ushering in a new era for materials science and chemical engineering. After decades of development, the vision is becoming reality. Quantum computers – though still nascent – have already shown they can emulate the quantum behavior of molecules and materials in ways that classical computers never could, hinting at their tremendous potential.

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> Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip...

- Published: 2024-05-11
- Modified: 2026-04-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-xiaohong/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
Chinese researchers have announced “Xiaohong”, a new superconducting quantum processor boasting 504 qubits – the largest such chip ever built in China . This record-breaking processor, developed by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information and Quantum Physics in collaboration with industry partner QuantumCTek, vaults China into the upper echelon of quantum hardware achievements. Xiaohong’s qubit count surpasses previous domestic efforts by an order of magnitude, marking a significant milestone in the nation’s quest for quantum computing leadership . Just as importantly, the team reports that the chip’s quality metrics (qubit coherence lifetimes, gate fidelities, and usable circuit depth) are expected to rival those of leading international platforms like IBM’s quantum machines . In other words, Xiaohong is not only bigger, but also aims to be better in reliability – a critical combination as the global quantum race accelerates.

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> Researchers have made a significant breakthrough in quantum computing by demonstrating a controllable interaction between hole-spin qubits...

- Published: 2024-05-07
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/hole-spin-qubits/
- Categories: Research
- Tags: Switzerland
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> External quantum commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the expertise that most academic teams lack...

- Published: 2024-04-30
- Modified: 2025-09-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-commercialization/quantum-commercialization/
- Categories: Quantum Commercialization, Leadership
The current stage of development in quantum isn’t about figuring out if the technology works – it’s about making it work reliably, at scale, and for a purpose. That requires an all-hands-on-deck approach. Universities and research institutes must continue to push the frontiers of knowledge. Tech transfer offices should be empowered with more resources and flexibility to nurture quantum projects for the long haul. And crucially, external commercialization experts need to be integrated into the process to provide the experience and acceleration that most academic teams lack. It’s a symbiosis: internal teams bring depth of knowledge, external partners bring breadth of execution skills.

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> Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) represent the next evolution in software transparency and security risk management...

- Published: 2024-04-25
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptographic-bill-of-materials-cbom/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) represent the next evolution in software transparency and security risk management. As we have explored, a CBOM provides deep visibility into an application’s cryptographic underpinnings – an area that has often been opaque to security teams. By enumerating algorithms, keys, certificates, and their usage, CBOMs empower organizations to tackle challenges ranging from quantum cryptography transition and legacy crypto cleanup to regulatory compliance and rapid incident response to crypto vulnerabilities. For security architects and CISOs, adopting CBOM practices offers actionable benefits. It means no longer relying on ad-hoc methods or tribal knowledge to answer “What crypto are we using in our products?” Instead, you have a ready inventory to consult or share with stakeholders. It means being prepared for mandates (like those from OWASP, NIST, CISA, ETSI, etc.) that increasingly require demonstrating control over cryptography. And importantly, it means reducing risk: weaker algorithms are identified and phased out, certificate and key issues are caught early, and a clear roadmap exists for embracing new standards like post-quantum algorithms.

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> In a pioneering achievement, researchers have established a crucial connection necessary for the quantum internet...

- Published: 2024-04-20
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/imperial-quantum-internet/
- Categories: Research
- Tags: United Kingdom
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> Building a cryptography-breaking quantum computer (often dubbed Q-Day) will demand far more than just better algorithms or a few more qubits.

- Published: 2024-04-19
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/manufacturability/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, CRQC Capability Framework, Q-Day
Building a cryptography-breaking quantum computer (often dubbed Q-Day) will demand far more than just better algorithms or a few more qubits. It requires a massive scale-up in engineering - reaching hundreds of thousands or even millions of physical qubits - and doing so in a practical, manufacturable way. Engineering Scale & Manufacturability (Capability E.1) is about bridging the gap between today’s laboratory prototypes and tomorrow’s industrial quantum machines. This means not only increasing qubit counts, but also ensuring those qubits can be fabricated with high yield, integrated into large modules, controlled efficiently, kept stable for long periods, and produced at a reasonable cost. In essence, E.1 addresses the question: Can we build a million-qubit quantum computer with the reliability and economy of classical computing systems? To answer that, we look at several key engineering dimensions – from chip yields and packaging to cryogenics and system uptime. Below we outline the main areas to consider, along with signals to watch for that indicate progress in each area. When these engineering challenges are overcome together, the feasibility of building a large-scale quantum computer dramatically increases – laying the groundwork for Q-Day.

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> Qubit connectivity refers to which qubits can interact directly (perform two-qubit gates) with each other. This is often visualized as a connectivity...

- Published: 2024-04-18
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qubit-connectivity/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, CRQC Capability Framework, Q-Day
Qubit connectivity refers to which qubits can interact directly (perform two-qubit gates) with each other. This is often visualized as a connectivity graph: each node is a qubit, and an edge between two nodes means those qubits can be coupled for a two-qubit gate. Some hardware has a dense graph (even complete or all-to-all connectivity), meaning any qubit can directly entangle with any other. Others have a sparse graph, e.g. a 2D grid where each qubit only connects to its nearest neighbors. Routing efficiency then refers to how we perform operations between qubits that aren’t directly connected - essentially, the strategies to move quantum information across the device as needed. If qubits that must interact are not neighbors on the graph, one must route the information through intermediate hops. This typically involves inserting SWAP gates (which exchange the states of two qubits) to shuttle quantum states along a path until the desired qubits become adjacent, or using other techniques like shuttling physical qubits (moving ions or atoms), entanglement swapping/teleportation (using intermediary entangled pairs to transmit quantum states), or dynamic couplers that can connect distant qubits on demand. In short, connectivity determines the “wiring” of the quantum processor’s internal network, while routing is how we utilize that wiring to get qubits to talk to each other.

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> A cryptographic inventory is essentially a complete map of all cryptography used in an organization’s systems – and it is vital for understanding...

- Published: 2024-04-13
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptographic-inventory/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
A cryptographic inventory is essentially a complete map of all cryptography used in an organization’s systems – and it is vital for understanding quantum-vulnerable assets and planning remediation. In theory it sounds straightforward: “list all your cryptography.” In practice, however, building a full cryptographic inventory is an extremely complex, lengthy endeavor. Many enterprises find that even identifying all their IT assets is challenging, let alone uncovering every cryptographic component hidden within those assets. Cryptography often lurks in multiple layers of hardware, software, and firmware, making it difficult to spot. Despite the difficulty, performing a thorough inventory is strongly recommended (or required) by major security guidelines as the foundational step toward crypto-agility and quantum readiness. Without it, organizations cannot effectively assess where legacy algorithms (like RSA or ECC) are used and vulnerable, nor plan their transition to quantum-safe solutions. But executing a comprehensive cryptographic inventory is not a trivial “box-ticking” exercise. It demands careful strategy, a combination of automated tools and manual effort, and close coordination across the organization over a long period – often years for large enterprises. Performing this inventory is hard, but it sets the stage for all subsequent steps.

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> EU publishes "Recommendation on a Coordinated Implementation Roadmap for the transition to Post-Quantum Cryptography"

- Published: 2024-04-12
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/eu-recommendation-post-quantum/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Europe
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> A recent bill introduced by United States' Republican lawmakers aims to accelerate the Defense Department's integration of quantum

- Published: 2024-04-12
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/dod-quantum-bill/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: Government & Defense, United States
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> The term quantum sovereignty has entered the geopolitical lexicon, capturing the idea that nations must control their own quantum technologies...

- Published: 2024-04-12
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sovereignty-intro/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
The term quantum sovereignty has entered the geopolitical lexicon, capturing the idea that nations must control their own quantum technologies – from ultra-powerful quantum computers to unhackable quantum communications – or risk dependence on others. “The rapid advancement of quantum computing has ignited a fierce race for the next era of computing innovation globally,” noted a recent Middle East technology briefing. Indeed, echoes of past tech races are loud. A former U.S. Air Force scientist recently likened the U.S.–China competition in quantum to a new Cold War, a “quantum arms race” with parallels to the 20th-century struggle for nuclear supremacy. But unlike the bipolar Cold War, today’s quantum race has many players. The United States and China are in the lead, pouring billions into research and jockeying for breakthroughs. The European Union, determined not to fall behind again as it did in the internet era, is investing heavily to secure “European quantum sovereignty.” Smaller nations and regional blocs – from India to the Gulf states – are also joining the fray, partnering with tech companies and allies to boost their quantum capabilities. The result is a complex global contest whose outcome could reshape economic and military balances. As one analyst put it, quantum computing’s “geopolitical weight” and its threat to current cybersecurity mean that not only the U.S. and China but also Europe, the U.K., India, Canada, Japan and others are “investing heavily in the technology… in the name of national security.”

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> The quantum computer that breaks your encryption won't be a single chip. It will be a heterogeneous system of specialized QPUs...

- Published: 2024-04-11
- Modified: 2026-04-09
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/heterogenous-quantum-computer/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Systems Integration
There's a question that has quietly bothered me for years, one the quantum computing industry has mostly avoided asking out loud: why are we trying to build a quantum computer the way we stopped building classical computers fifty years ago? The modern data center doesn't run on one kind of chip. It runs on CPUs, GPUs, TPUs, FPGAs, DPUs, and increasingly specialized accelerators - each optimized for a narrow class of operations, connected by high-bandwidth fabrics, orchestrated by software that routes workloads to whichever processing element handles them best. The smartphone in your pocket contains more types of specialized silicon than most people can name. This is not an accident. It is the result of a fundamental lesson the classical computing industry learned the hard way: no single processor architecture is optimal for all tasks, and the system that wins is the one that specializes its components and integrates them intelligently. Quantum computing, by contrast, remains largely trapped in a monolithic mindset. The prevailing narrative is a horse race: superconducting vs. trapped ion vs. neutral atom vs. photonic vs. silicon spin. Pick your modality, scale it up, and win. The implicit assumption is that one qubit technology will emerge as the "winner" - the quantum equivalent of the x86 architecture - and everything else will fade away. I think that assumption is wrong. And I think the quantum computer that eventually poses a real threat to today's cryptography will look nothing like what most people imagine when they hear "quantum computer." It won't be a single chip. It won't use a single qubit modality. And it won't be orchestrated by a human writing gate sequences. It will be a heterogeneous system of specialized quantum and classical processing elements, dynamically orchestrated by AI. I want to be clear upfront: this is speculation. Everything I describe here depends on solving engineering problems that remain formidable — chief among them actually building fault-tolerant quantum processors of any kind, which no one has yet achieved at cryptographically relevant scale. But I believe the architectural logic is sound, and understanding it matters for how we think about the timeline and nature of the quantum threat.

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> Can we afford to relinquish control of robots to an AI whose behavior we have yet to learn how to govern with certainty?

- Published: 2024-04-07
- Modified: 2025-12-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/risks-ai-autonomous-robots/
- Categories: AI Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
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> Cybersecurity has swiftly moved from an IT issue to a core boardroom concern. Regulators around are increasingly holding boards...

- Published: 2024-04-05
- Modified: 2025-09-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/boards-cybersecurity/
- Categories: Leadership
Cybersecurity has swiftly moved from an IT issue to a core boardroom concern. Regulators around the world are increasingly holding boards of directors directly responsible for overseeing cyber risk - and even personally accountable when things go wrong. As someone who has served as an interim CISO and as a board member, I’ve witnessed this shift firsthand.

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> Microsoft and Quantinuum announced a significant achievement in quantum computing, demonstrating the most reliable logical qubits on record

- Published: 2024-04-04
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/logical-qubit-microsoft/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
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> Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is moving from theory to practice. NIST has now standardized several PQC algorithms

- Published: 2024-03-30
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/infrastructure-challenges-pqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is moving from theory to practice. NIST has now standardized several PQC algorithms - such as CRYSTALS-Kyber for key exchange (now known as ML-KEM) and CRYSTALS-Dilithium and SPHINCS+ for digital signatures - and major tech companies like Google, AWS, and Cloudflare have begun experimenting with integrating these algorithms. On the surface, it may seem that we can simply “drop in” PQC algorithms as replacements for RSA or ECC. However, migrating to PQC is not plug-and-play. In fact, even an additional kilobyte or two of data in cryptographic exchanges can ripple through an organization’s infrastructure in unexpected ways.

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- Published: 2024-03-29
- Modified: 2024-03-29
- URL: https://postquantum.com/uncategorized/cyber-kinetic-risk-primer/
- Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security
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> Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative...

- Published: 2024-03-20
- Modified: 2025-09-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-switzerland/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: Switzerland
Switzerland’s quantum technology ecosystem exemplifies how a combination of academic excellence, proactive government support, and innovative entrepreneurship can make a country a major player in the second quantum revolution. In the span of two decades, Switzerland has built a world-class quantum R&D environment – featuring top universities (ETH, EPFL, Geneva, Basel) driving advances in computing and cryptography, national programs knitting these efforts together, and companies turning theory into practice. The country’s early bets on quantum science (e.g. funding NCCRs, supporting a QKD startup) are paying off in the form of global leadership in areas like quantum cryptography and instrumentation. As the quantum field moves from research to real-world implementation, Switzerland is well-positioned to benefit. Its strong talent pool continues to grow, with new graduates skilled in quantum engineering and computing coming out of dedicated programs.

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> To fortify its cyber-kinetic defenses in line with growing digital transformation and infrastructural expansions, Saudi Arabia must adopt...

- Published: 2024-03-19
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-saudi-ksa/
- Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia
To fortify its cyber-kinetic defenses in line with growing digital transformation and infrastructural expansions, Saudi Arabia must adopt a multi-layered approach that encompasses regulation, technology, and human capital. To this end, the Kingdom has already embarked on a comprehensive strategy to fortify its cybersecurity posture in the 5G/AI era. The country established the National Cybersecurity Authority (NCA) to oversee and enhance the protection of its ICT infrastructure. This authority is responsible for setting cybersecurity standards, ensuring compliance, and facilitating coordination among various sectors to bolster the nation's cyber defenses.

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> 4,099 is the widely cited number of quantum bits one would need to factor a 2048-bit RSA key using Shor’s algorithm – in other words...

- Published: 2024-03-05
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/4099-qubits-rsa/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
4,099 is the widely cited number of quantum bits one would need to factor a 2048-bit RSA key using Shor’s algorithm – in other words, the notional threshold at which a quantum computer could crack one of today’s most common encryption standards. The claim has an alluring simplicity: if we could just build a quantum machine with a few thousand perfect qubits, decades of RSA-protected secrets would fall in seconds. But where does this “4,099 logical qubits” figure actually come from, and what does it really mean? The story behind it reveals both how far quantum algorithms have come and how much further quantum hardware needs to go.

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> Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) issues "Advisory on Addressing the Cybersecurity Risks Associated with Quantum"

- Published: 2024-02-27
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/mas-quantum-advisory/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: ASEAN, Finance & Banking, Singapore
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> The race is on to quantum‑proof the world’s telecom networks. With cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) projected to arrive...

- Published: 2024-02-26
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/telecom-pqc-challenges/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Telecommunications
The race is on to quantum‑proof the world’s telecom networks. With cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQC) projected to arrive by the 2030s, global communications providers face an urgent mandate to upgrade their security foundations. Today’s mobile and fixed‑line networks rely on public-key cryptography that quantum algorithms could eventually break. In response, the telecom industry is turning to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) as the primary defense. Yet adopting PQC at telecom scale is a complex journey, entailing far more than a simple swap of algorithms. It demands strategic foresight and technical rigor to overcome unique architectural and operational hurdles. As an anecdotal example, my team has been working with one telecommunications provider on quantum readiness for over 10 years, and the company is not even close to completing their PQC migration.

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> For years, creativity has been held up as the last bastion of human uniqueness. A mysterious force that AI could never replicate. Our moat against AI

- Published: 2024-02-22
- Modified: 2026-01-25
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-asi-creativity/
- Categories: AI Security
For years, creativity has been held up as the last bastion of human uniqueness. A mysterious force that AI could never replicate. Our moat against AI. A defining trait that would forever separate human minds from silicon brains. The idea is that AI fundamentally lacks the imaginative originality that defines human creativity. This belief often extends to the idea that creativity could serve as a litmus test for advanced AI: if a machine ever demonstrated true creative genius, perhaps that would be the moment it achieves artificial superintelligence (ASI). In theory, an unimaginative algorithm might solve equations, but it “cannot paint a masterpiece or pen a poem like a human can,” or so the thinking went. As an observer of AI development, this premise is becoming increasingly harder to defend. From visual art to writing and even scientific problem-solving, AI-generated creations are exhibiting “creativity” that is hard to discern from human creativity. Recent research and achievements suggest that our creativity might not be such a safe moat after all.

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> Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which qubits can be sent

- Published: 2024-02-14
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-repeaters/
- Categories: Quantum Networks
Quantum repeaters are specialized devices in quantum communication networks designed to extend the distance over which quantum information (qubits) can be sent without being lost or corrupted . They tackle a fundamental challenge: photons carrying qubits tend to get absorbed or scatter as they travel through fiber or air, and quantum states can decohere (lose their quantum properties) due to environmental noise.

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> The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation.

- Published: 2024-02-12
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-united-kingdom/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: United Kingdom
The United Kingdom’s quantum technology initiatives have moved from foundational research into a phase of delivery and implementation. The country’s comprehensive approach – supporting research excellence, investing in infrastructure and industry collaboration, and aligning with national goals in security and economy – provides a strong platform for future success. Over the next decade, the UK is expected to deliver tangible quantum innovations: from prototype quantum computers accessible to researchers and industry, to secure quantum communication links safeguarding data, to quantum sensors revealing and navigating the world in fundamentally new ways.

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> Researchers from Nord Quantique have developed an innovative error correction system that drastically reduces the number of qubits needed...

- Published: 2024-02-10
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/error-correction-nord-quantique/
- Categories: Research, Uncategorized
- Tags: Canada
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> NATO has released a public summary of its first Quantum Technologies Strategy, signalling that the Alliance now treats quantum as...

- Published: 2024-01-18
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/nato-quantum-technologies-strategy/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Government & Defense
NATO has released a public summary of its first Quantum Technologies Strategy, signalling that the Alliance now treats quantum as more than a long-term science project: it’s a near-term driver of military advantage, a cybersecurity risk, and a locus of strategic competition. The 5‑minute official text (dated 16 January 2024) frames quantum technologies as potentially transformative across sensing, imaging, positioning/navigation/timing (PNT), communications, and computing - while warning that the same breakthroughs could undermine NATO’s ability to deter and defend if adversaries get there first. At the center is a clear political message: NATO wants to become “quantum-ready.” In NATO’s telling, that means building a secure and resilient transatlantic quantum ecosystem, aligning investments and information-sharing across Allies, and accelerating adoption so that quantum doesn’t create new capability gaps between NATO and “strategic competitors and potential adversaries.”

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> In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit...

- Published: 2024-01-15
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/origin-quantum-wukong/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
In a major milestone for China’s quantum tech ambitions, Hefei-based startup Origin Quantum has unveiled “Wukong,” a 72-qubit superconducting quantum processor. Launched on January 6, 2024, this third-generation quantum computer is China’s first home-grown superconducting quantum computer and the most advanced of its kind in the country . The system – named after the Monkey King Sun Wukong (famed for “72 transformations” in Chinese legend) – symbolizes its powerful capabilities and marks China’s official entry into the era of accessible quantum computing .

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> In the late 1990s, physicist David DiVincenzo outlined a set of conditions - now known as DiVincenzo’s criteria...

- Published: 2024-01-10
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/divincenzo-quantum-computer/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum computing promises to revolutionize fields from cybersecurity to drug discovery, but building a functional quantum computer is an immense technical challenge. In the late 1990s, physicist David DiVincenzo outlined a set of conditions - now known as DiVincenzo’s criteria - that any viable quantum computing architecture must satisfy. These seven criteria serve as a checklist and roadmap for engineers and investors alike, defining what it takes to turn quantum theory into a working machine. They have become a de facto benchmark for gauging the maturity of quantum hardware approaches, helping cut through hype by focusing on fundamental capabilities. They illuminate how close (or far) today’s devices are from realizing practical, scalable quantum computing.

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> Entanglement-as-a-Service (EAAS) is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly...

- Published: 2024-01-10
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-service-eaas/
- Categories: Quantum Networks
Entanglement-as-a-Service is transitioning from a fascinating concept to a nascent reality. Its technical foundations are solidly rooted in quantum physics, its current development is accelerating through global research efforts, and its promise has caught the attention of the telecommunications industry and beyond. While challenges remain in scaling and integration, the trajectory is clear: EaaS and quantum networks will likely be as transformative in the 21st century as the internet was in the 20th, opening new frontiers in secure communication, computing, and sensing.

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> Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum derive their security from cryptographic algorithms – mathematical puzzles...

- Published: 2024-01-09
- Modified: 2026-03-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-cryptocurrencies-bitcoin/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Crypto Security
Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum derive their security from cryptographic algorithms – mathematical puzzles that are practically impossible for classical computers to solve in any reasonable time. However, the emergence of quantum computing threatens this security assumption. Unlike classical machines, quantum computers leverage quantum mechanics to perform certain computations exponentially faster, potentially breaking the cryptographic foundations of blockchain systems. While quantum computers remain in their infancy today, future quantum breakthroughs could undermine digital signatures, wallet security, and even aspects of blockchain consensus if no preventive measures are taken.

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> Quantum sensing leverages quantum phenomena (entanglement, superposition, etc.) to achieve measurement precision beyond classical limits...

- Published: 2024-01-02
- Modified: 2026-02-07
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-sensing-navigation-sovereignty/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty, Quantum Sensing
Quantum sensing leverages quantum phenomena (entanglement, superposition, etc.) to achieve measurement precision beyond classical limits. Importantly, many quantum sensors are nearing deployable maturity, unlike quantum computers that remain experimental. Atomic clocks, quantum optical gyroscopes, gravity sensors and the like are transitioning from labs to real-world pilots. This means a nation that leads in quantum PNT and sensing could secure strategic benefits sooner than one betting solely on future quantum computing breakthroughs. Quantum PNT in Contested Environments: Strategic Value Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) underpins both modern militaries and civilian infrastructure - from guiding missiles and troops to timestamping financial transactions. Today’s PNT is dominated by satellite constellations like GPS, which are vulnerable to jamming, spoofing, or outright destruction in a conflict. Quantum PNT aims to liberate users from that vulnerability. Quantum-enhanced inertial navigation systems (“quantum compasses”) use ultra-precise cold-atom accelerometers and gyroscopes to track position without any external signals. In effect, a vehicle or submarine can dead-reckon its location with such precision that it can navigate for long periods even if GPS is unavailable or adversaries jam the radio spectrum. The payoff is navigation that cannot be jammed or spoofed - a critical advantage for submarines, aircraft, or even future smartphones operating in GPS-denied environments. Military applications are obvious: a submarine could cruise covertly for months knowing its position to within meters, purely by its on-board quantum sensors, even if satellites are knocked out.

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> The prospect of AI undergoing unbounded, non-aligned, recursive self-improvement and disseminating new capabilities to other AIs is a concern

- Published: 2024-01-01
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/marin-statement-on-ai-risk/
- Categories: AI Security, Leadership
- Tags: featured
The rapid development of AI brings both extraordinary potential and unprecedented risks. AI systems are increasingly demonstrating emergent behaviors, and in some cases, are even capable of self-improvement. This advancement, while remarkable, raises critical questions about our ability to control and understand these systems fully.

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> India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining...

- Published: 2023-12-29
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-india/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Policies
- Tags: India
India’s quantum technology initiatives, though starting later than some global peers, are rapidly gaining traction. The nation is combining its rich legacy in fundamental physics with modern innovation frameworks to advance quantum computing, communications, cryptography, and sensing. The coming years are poised to witness India transitioning from prototyping to implementation: quantum computers solving domain-specific problems, quantum-encrypted channels protecting national data, and quantum sensors enhancing the precision of measurements that drive both science and industry.

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> At its core, crypto-agility means being able to swiftly swap out cryptographic algorithms or implementations when weaknesses emerge.

- Published: 2023-12-29
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/rethinking-crypto-agility/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
At its core, crypto-agility means being able to swiftly swap out cryptographic algorithms or implementations when weaknesses emerge. In an ideal world, an organization could “drop in” a new encryption algorithm as easily as a software patch, ensuring they stay ahead of threats like quantum computing. The goal is admirable - if you’re nimble in updating encryption, migrating to stronger algorithms is “no big deal”. In theory, this agility would let us replace vulnerable ciphers (like RSA or ECC) with post-quantum cryptography (PQC) at the drop of a hat, minimizing the window of exposure to quantum attacks. In practice, however, this ideal is seldom achieved. Outdated algorithms often linger far past their expiration dates because “ripping them out would break things” in complex ecosystems. A vivid example is SHA-1: even after it was declared broken and deprecated, support for SHA-1 hung around for years in many protocols simply because not all the dependent systems could drop it overnight. For CISOs and technology leaders, this disconnect between theory and reality signals that crypto-agility’s definition needs an update. A true crypto-agility must become an organizational practice - one focused not on effortless algorithm swaps (a nice-to-have that “now feels… fundamentally impractical”), but on continuous, adaptive risk mitigation - by any meams necessary.

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> Law enforcement agencies occupy a unique position in the context of the quantum threat. They are both protectors of...

- Published: 2023-12-28
- Modified: 2025-12-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/law-enforcement-quantum/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: Government & Defense
Law enforcement agencies occupy a unique position in the context of the quantum threat. They are both protectors of society’s security and heavy users of sensitive information systems, which makes them especially exposed if those systems are compromised. Here’s why law enforcement is special: Highly Sensitive Data: Police and investigative agencies handle data that could be devastating if leaked – witness identities, undercover operations, criminal intelligence, evidence files, and even personal data of citizens. Such information often needs to remain confidential for decades. If criminal groups or hostile actors use a quantum computer to decrypt law enforcement databases or communications, it could endanger lives and undermine ongoing investigations. Unfortunately, the same “state-of-the-art encryption” protecting this data today “will effectively be broken” by quantum computing advances. Law enforcement must therefore anticipate that encrypted records and communications could be exposed in the not-too-distant future . Critical Communications: Law enforcement and emergency services rely on mission-critical communications (like police radio networks, dispatch systems, etc.) that use encryption for security. These systems have long deployment cycles and must function during crises. Upgrading their cryptography is complex (more on this in a later section), and a quantum breach could allow criminals to eavesdrop on or spoof police communications. The dual demand on these networks – high resilience and strong security – means a cryptographic break could be especially damaging . Imagine organized criminals or terrorists being able to intercept FBI or Europol operational comms; the stakes are extremely high. Target of Criminals and Nation-States: By virtue of their role, law enforcement agencies themselves are targets for adversaries. Criminal organizations might seek to hack police systems to learn what the police know about them or to disrupt investigations. Nation-state hackers have already targeted agencies like the FBI and police departments, and they could leverage quantum tools to escalate those intrusions. For example, encrypted case files or suspect communications that police have intercepted (but can’t break today) might be decrypted by adversaries with quantum capability, revealing what law enforcement is tracking. Law enforcement agencies thus face the “double-edged sword” of technology – it brings capabilities but also new threats. Responsibility to Society: Perhaps most importantly, law enforcement has a duty to protect the public from emerging technological threats. Just as police adapt to the rise of the internet or AI in crime, they must now prepare for criminals equipped with quantum computing. This means anticipating new crime tactics and preventing worst-case scenarios. Law enforcement’s responsibilities include raising awareness, helping to coordinate a response among government and industry, and ensuring public safety during any transitional turmoil that Q-Day might bring. If a “crypto-apocalypse” begins (when encryption fails), there could be widespread fear and criminal exploitation; police will be on the front lines managing the fallout and maintaining order.

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> IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances....

- Published: 2023-12-28
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-133-qubit-heron-quantum/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
IBM has announced a new superconducting quantum processor, code-named “Heron,” featuring 133 qubits and a host of architectural advances. The IBM Quantum Heron chip was unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023 as the company’s latest milestone in its quantum computing roadmap. IBM touts Heron as a next-generation processor that delivers significantly improved performance and reliability compared to its predecessors. This 133-qubit device introduces new technologies aimed at boosting quantum computation capability while laying the groundwork for IBM’s future quantum systems.

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> The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) unveiled Special Publication (SP) 1800-38

- Published: 2023-12-23
- Modified: 2025-10-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nist-sp-1800-38-pqc-release/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) unveiled Special Publication (SP) 1800-38, “Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography,” a comprehensive practice guide to help organizations prepare for the quantum era. This guide, developed through the NIST National Cybersecurity Center of Excellence (NCCoE), is structured into three volumes (A, B, and C) and was produced in collaboration with over two dozen industry players - including Amazon Web Services (AWS), IBM, Microsoft, Samsung SDS, Entrust, PQShield, wolfSSL, and many others. The release of SP 1800-38 signals a significant effort to raise awareness and provide practical tools for the coming transition from today’s cryptography to quantum-resistant alternatives.
This announcement, also shared via the company’s social media, has generated buzz in the quantum community. But why is a qubit lasting an hour so important, and what does it mean for the broader race toward practical quantum computers? In this article, we’ll break down the significance in plain terms and explore how this breakthrough could impact”Q-Day” - the day when quantum computers can crack modern encryption.

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> 2023 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing

- Published: 2023-12-22
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantum-threat-timeline-report/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Industry
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> Space turns the quantum race into an infrastructure competition. What began as a laboratory contest for quantum computing and communications...

- Published: 2023-12-21
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sovereignty/quantum-in-space/
- Categories: Quantum Sovereignty
Space turns the quantum race into an infrastructure competition. What began as a laboratory contest for quantum computing and communications is rapidly moving into orbit. In 2016, Chinese scientists cheered as the Micius satellite (the world’s first quantum communications satellite) linked two ground stations with unbreakable quantum keys. A decade later, Europe’s space agency is preparing a prototype Eagle-1 satellite to join an ambitious EU-wide quantum network. In Washington, defense officials debate how to secure military communications against quantum code-breaking even as allies launch their own test satellites. These disparate efforts reflect a new reality: quantum technology is no longer confined to labs and fiber-optic cables - it’s being built into space infrastructure that could redefine sovereignty and global power. Why Quantum Capabilities Are Leaving the Lab (and Heading to Orbit) Quantum technologies promise unprecedented capabilities in communications, sensing, and timing. But to realize their full potential, nations are turning to satellites and space-based platforms:

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> The Harvard-MIT-QuEra team led by Mikhail Lukin published what I consider one of the most consequential neutral‑atom results to date...

- Published: 2023-12-13
- Modified: 2025-11-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/neutral-atoms-fault-tolerance/
- Categories: Research
The Harvard-MIT-QuEra team led by Mikhail Lukin published what I consider one of the most consequential neutral‑atom results to date: a programmable logical quantum processor that uses reconfigurable arrays of rubidium atoms to execute error‑corrected circuits at the logical level, with performance that improves as code distance increases and with clear, measured algorithmic benefits from encoding. The paper appeared in Nature on December 6 (open access): “Logical quantum processor based on reconfigurable atom arrays,” Evered, Bluvstein, Kalinowski, et al. DOI: 10.1038/s41586‑023‑06927‑3.

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> IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date.

- Published: 2023-12-11
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-condor/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
IBM has announced “Condor,” a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 1,121 qubits – the largest of its kind to date. Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit 2023, Condor marks the first quantum chip to surpass 1,000 qubits, a milestone many in the field have eyed as a crucial step toward practical quantum computing. The new processor, built on IBM’s heavy-hexagonal qubit architecture and cross-resonance gate technology, pushes the boundaries of scale in quantum hardware. With Condor, IBM more than doubles its previous qubit count record and sets a new high-water mark in the global race for quantum computing power.

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> Modern, high-stakes SIM-swapping is increasingly taking the form of an organized conspiracy, with multiple threat actors operating as a gang...

- Published: 2023-12-05
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/sim-swapping-economy/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> “Could I personally be sued or fined if our company gets breached?” This uneasy question is crossing the minds of many CISOs

- Published: 2023-11-19
- Modified: 2025-10-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/ciso-negligence-personal-liability/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, AI Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
“Could I personally be sued or fined if our company gets breached?” This uneasy question is crossing the minds of many CISOs and board members lately. High-profile cyber incidents and evolving regulations have made it clear that cybersecurity is not just an IT problem - it’s a corporate governance and legal liability issue. Defining “Reasonable” Cybersecurity: From Learned Hand to Global Standards What does it mean to take “reasonable” precautions in cybersecurity? Different legal systems articulate this standard in different ways, but they share a common core: organizations (and their leaders) are expected to balance the burden of security measures against the likelihood and potential severity of cyber incidents. In the U.S., this principle was famously captured by Judge Learned Hand’s negligence formula. In a 1947 case, Hand explained that a duty to take precautions exists if the burden of a safeguard (B) is less than the probability (P) of an accident times the gravity of harm (L). In plain terms, if a security measure is cheaper than the expected loss from a breach, failing to implement it can be deemed negligent and a breach of the duty of care. This Hand rule is essentially a cost-benefit test for reasonable care, and while juries aren’t explicitly taught the formula, U.S. courts use it to guide what an “ordinary careful person” (or company) would do. In practice, it means companies should eliminate “excessive, preventable dangers” by implementing safeguards that are not grossly disproportionate to the risk. For cybersecurity, think of examples like patching a critical software vulnerability: if a patch is readily available (low burden) and the risk of a breach is high, not patching would fail the Learned Hand test for reasonable care.

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> The path to quantum readiness is navigable with the right combination of skills, planning, and proactive execution. By leveraging existing...

- Published: 2023-11-15
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/skills-crypto-quantum-readiness/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
The path to quantum readiness is navigable with the right combination of skills, planning, and proactive execution. By leveraging existing strengths - the people and processes you already have - an enterprise can evolve its cryptographic foundations without needing a phD in quantum physics on staff. In fact, quantum-proofing your organization is less about radical new technology and more about disciplined security management: inventory your assets, keep your systems updated, plan for change, test thoroughly, and iterate. Crucially, the time to act is now. Standards are in place, and threat advisories from top agencies warn that waiting until quantum computers arrive is far too late. By beginning the transition today, you’re not only protecting against tomorrow’s decryption threats but also strengthening your agility to handle any cryptographic change (even unforeseen ones). Organizations that build crypto-agility into their DNA - treating cryptography as a living control with owners, budget, and metrics - will be those that can swiftly swap out algorithms when needed, whether due to quantum breakthroughs or classical vulnerabilities. This adaptability will soon be seen as a hallmark of good security governance, much like patch management and incident response are now.

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> "Quantum security" is a term that is increasingly being used. With everyone having their own definition of the term.

- Published: 2023-11-08
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-security-terminology/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
"Quantum security" is a term that is increasingly being used. With everyone having their own definition of the term. It can carry multiple meanings depending on context, but so do other related terms. The whole field is fairly new and related terms are not yet clearly defined. So this is my attempt to untangle the ambiguity by exploring what quantum security commonly refers to, how related terms like quantum resistance, quantum-safe cryptography, quantum resilience, quantum readiness, post-quantum security, and post-quantum cryptography (PQC) are defined, and how different organizations and standards bodies use these terms.

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> Operational Technology (OT) environments, such as industrial control systems and critical infrastructure, are especially at risk

- Published: 2023-11-07
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/ot-pqc-challenges/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Operational Technology (OT) environments, such as industrial control systems and critical infrastructure, are especially at risk due to their long-lived devices and infrequent updates. Many OT systems deployed today will still be in use a decade or two from now, well within the timeframe experts anticipate quantum attacks to become practical. The most critical OT systems will likely be the last to become quantum safe due to strict change procedures, long patching or replacement times, verification and validation requirements, and often their inability to handle some of the PQC compute and bandwidth requirements. In short, CISOs with OT responsibility must begin quantum-proofing now, even as immediate cyber threats persist.

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> The UK National Cybersecurity Centre (NCSC) has released a whitepaper titled "Next Steps in Preparing for Post-Quantum Cryptography,"

- Published: 2023-11-06
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/uk-ncsc-post-quantum-cryptography/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United Kingdom
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> Verified crypto-exchange accounts have become a hot commodity on the dark web, with login credentials available for as little as $20...

- Published: 2023-11-05
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/verified-crypto-accounts-dark-web/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Why multiple quantum computing paradigms? The goal is the same – realize a scalable, universal quantum computer – but the approaches differ...

- Published: 2023-11-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/taxonomy-modalities/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
- Tags: featured
A comprehensive field guide to every way humanity is trying to build a quantum computer — and why it matters that there isn't just one. This Deep Dive series surveys the full landscape of quantum computing modalities and architectures: from the leading gate-based approaches (superconducting, trapped-ion, photonic, neutral atom, silicon) through measurement-based and topological paradigms, to quantum annealing and the exotic frontier of phononic, biological, and neuromorphic quantum computing. Each article examines a modality on its own terms — the physics, the engineering trade-offs, the current state of the art, the companies and labs behind it, and the realistic path (or lack of one) toward fault tolerance and scale. The taxonomy article at the heart of this series provides the structural overview; the individual deep dives go further on each approach. Whether you're a strategist evaluating hardware bets, a systems integrator planning for a multi-modality future, or simply trying to cut through vendor marketing, this series gives you the technical grounding to compare approaches honestly and understand what each one can — and cannot — deliver.

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> A team of researchers from Harvard University, MIT, and QuEra have achieved two-qubit entangling gates with 99.5% fidelity on 60 neutral atom...

- Published: 2023-10-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/quera-neutral-atom/
- Categories: Research
- Tags: United States
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> Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons that have been...

- Published: 2023-10-28
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-cluster-state/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Photonic Cluster-State Computing is a form of quantum computing in which information is processed using photons (particles of light) that have been prepared in a highly entangled state known as a cluster state. It falls under the paradigm of measurement-based quantum computing (MBQC), often called the one-way quantum computer. In this scheme, a large entangled resource state (the photonic cluster state) is generated first, and then the computation is carried out by performing a sequence of single-qubit measurements on the individual photons.

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> Over 1,000 controllable atomic qubits in one single plane achieved by researchers from TU Darmstadt in Germany. As published in arXiv for now...

- Published: 2023-10-28
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/1000-atomic-qubits/
- Categories: Research
- Tags: Europe, Germany
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> Quantum risk has moved from theoretical to tangible: while quantum computers today remain too primitive to break modern ciphers, experts...

- Published: 2023-10-27
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-risk/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
In a secure data center somewhere, an adversary is quietly stockpiling encrypted emails, financial transactions, and state secrets - betting that within a decade a new kind of machine will decrypt them in minutes. This scenario underpins what cybersecurity experts are calling "quantum risk." In essence, quantum risk is the looming threat that advances in quantum computing will shatter the cryptographic safeguards protecting our digital infrastructure. It’s a risk that has moved from theoretical to tangible: while quantum computers today remain too primitive to break modern ciphers, experts widely agree that a quantum codebreaking device is a matter of when, not if. For cybersecurity professionals and policymakers, the race is on to understand this threat and brace for its impact.

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> Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties...

- Published: 2023-10-24
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-memories/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks
Quantum memories are devices capable of storing quantum states (qubits) in a stable form without collapsing their quantum properties. In essence, a quantum memory is the quantum-mechanical analog of classical computer memory or RAM .

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> Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms...

- Published: 2023-10-18
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/ion-trap-neutral-atom-mbqc/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Ion Trap and Neutral Atom implementations of MBQC leverage two leading “matter-qubit” platforms – trapped ions and ultracold neutral atoms – to realize this model. In a trapped-ion MBQC, a string of ions (charged atoms) is confined and entangled via electromagnetic fields and laser pulses. The ions’ internal states serve as qubits that can be entangled pairwise or globally using multi-ion gate operations, preparing a cluster state.

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> Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology...

- Published: 2023-10-18
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-lidar-quantum-radar/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing
- Tags: Government & Defense
Quantum radar and quantum LiDAR are no longer science fiction – they are emerging reality, albeit in early stages. They differ in technology and likely timelines: expect to hear more about quantum LiDAR in commercial products soon, while quantum radar will continue to be a strategic project for defense and require further breakthroughs to reach its full promise. Both, however, underscore the transformative power of quantum technology. As these sensors evolve, they could redefine how we perceive the world, achieving what was once thought impossible – like spotting the “invisible” stealth plane, or navigating a pitch-black, foggy road with the same confidence as a clear day.

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> Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons...

- Published: 2023-10-14
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/jiuzhang-3/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
Chinese researchers have announced Jiuzhang 3.0, a new photonic quantum computing prototype that set a record by detecting 255 photons in a boson sampling experiment . Unveiled in October 2023 by a team led by renowned physicist Pan Jianwei, Jiuzhang 3.0 pushes the boundaries of photonic quantum computing with a demonstration that is 10 quadrillion times faster at solving a Gaussian boson sampling problem than the fastest classical supercomputers . This milestone firmly advances the frontier of quantum computational advantage in photonics, outpacing both the team’s earlier machines and rival systems worldwide.

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> Based on anonymized results of a project, I will try to illustrate key parts of a comprehensive Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) for a telecom...

- Published: 2023-10-11
- Modified: 2025-12-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cbom-open-ran-telecom/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
Based on anonymized results of a project, I will try to illustrate key parts of a comprehensive Cryptographic Bill of Materials (CBOM) for a telecom Radio Access Network (RAN) implementation based on the Open RAN architecture. I enumerate all cryptographic mechanisms across the control plane, user plane, management interfaces, and orchestration layers of the RAN. Both standardized algorithms (e.g. 3GPP-defined ciphers like SNOW 3G, AES, ZUC) and any vendor-specific/proprietary mechanisms are included, with an emphasis on an EU deployment scenario. In the European context, strong encryption and security-by-design are mandated; for example, ENISA (the EU cybersecurity agency) recommends using non-null ciphers for all user and signaling data and state-of-the-art protocols with mutual authentication on RAN interfaces. We break down the CBOM by major architectural components – Radio Unit (O-RU), Distributed Unit (O-DU), Central Unit (O-CU), RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC), and Service Management & Orchestration (SMO) – detailing cryptographic primitives used for key functions: authentication, encryption, key agreement/management, secure boot & supply chain integrity, and protocol-specific security. EU-specific standards and regulations (such as 3GPP security specs, O-RAN Alliance security requirements, ENISA guidelines, and GDPR-compliant practices) are cited to contextualize the choices.

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> Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation...

- Published: 2023-10-11
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-energy-utilities/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Energy & Utilities
Quantum technologies matter for energy because many challenges in this sector involve combinatorial optimization and molecular simulation at scales classical computers cannot handle. For example, routing power through a grid with thousands of control decisions or modeling the chemistry inside a battery are tasks that overwhelm today’s fastest supercomputers. Quantum computers leverage phenomena like superposition and entanglement to examine a vast number of configurations simultaneously, potentially delivering solutions faster or more accurately. The result could be more efficient energy distribution, smarter storage solutions, and accelerated innovation in clean energy technology.

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> Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction...

- Published: 2023-10-10
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/superconducting-qubits/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Superconducting qubits are quantum bits formed by tiny superconducting electric circuits, typically based on the Josephson junction – a sandwich of two superconductors separated by a thin insulator which allows tunneling of Cooper pairs. When cooled to extremely low temperatures (≈10–20 millikelvin), these circuits exhibit quantized energy levels that can serve as the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states of a qubit .

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> Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharma and biotech industries. Its ability to tackle problems...

- Published: 2023-10-09
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-use-cases-pharma-biotech/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Pharmaceuticals & Biotechnology
Quantum computing is poised to become a catalytic force in the global pharmaceuticals and biotechnology industries. Its ability to tackle problems of staggering complexity – whether simulating the quantum behavior of drug molecules, analyzing massive genomic datasets for personalized medicine, or optimizing the myriad decisions in R&D and supply chains – offers a new computational paradigm for an innovation-hungry sector. We have seen that even in its nascent state, quantum technology is already making waves: early experiments have accelerated molecular discovery, quantum sensors are breaking new ground in biomedical imaging , and companies big and small are gearing up through partnerships and pilot projects to be part of this coming revolution .

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> Quantum physics is famously weird and fascinating. Its principles (like superposition and entanglement) defy everyday intuition...

- Published: 2023-10-07
- Modified: 2025-10-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-baloney-detection-toolkit/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum physics is famously weird and fascinating. Its principles (like superposition and entanglement) defy everyday intuition, which gives quantum technology an almost magical aura. Unfortunately, that same mystique attracts a lot of baloney. From overhyped press releases to outright scams and pseudoscience, “quantum flapdoodle” - as Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann dubbed it - is rampant. In recent years, a perfect storm of factors (AI hype, government funding for quantum, eager investors, FOMO) has fueled a quantum hype machine that sometimes overshadows reality. How can a tech-savvy quantum enthusiast discern real breakthroughs from quantum B.S.? Carl Sagan, the legendary astronomer, once proposed a Baloney Detection Kit for general claims - a set of skeptical tools to separate sense from nonsense. Inspired by Sagan’s gentle skepticism, let’s build a Quantum Baloney Detection Toolkit.

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> The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is perhaps the first country in the world to explicitly entrench AI in its national development plans...

- Published: 2023-10-06
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/ai-oasis-ais-role-in-saudi-vision-2030/
- Categories: Society 5.0
- Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia
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> Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree...

- Published: 2023-10-06
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Photonic quantum computing uses particles of light – photons – as qubits. Typically, the qubit is encoded in some degree of freedom of a single photon, such as its polarization (horizontal = |0⟩, vertical = |1⟩), or its presence/absence in a given mode (occupation number basis: no photon = |0⟩, one photon = |1⟩ in a mode), or time-bin (photon arriving early vs late). Photons are appealing qubits because they travel at the speed of light, have very low environmental interaction (hence can maintain coherence over long distances, which is why photons are used in quantum communication), and operate at room temperature.

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> Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum

- Published: 2023-10-06
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/holonomic-geometric-phase/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Holonomic quantum computing (also known as geometric quantum computing) is a paradigm that uses geometric phase effects to perform quantum logic operations. In a holonomic gate, the quantum state is manipulated by adiabatically (or sometimes non-adiabatically) moving the system’s parameters along a closed loop in parameter space, causing the state to acquire a geometric phase or holonomy.

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> Cryptosec summary of the dark web manual for cash-out of illicit-origin crypto assets - "Rags to Riches Guide"

- Published: 2023-10-05
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/illicit-crypto-withdrawal/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state...

- Published: 2023-10-05
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/trapped-ion-qubits/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed.

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> Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum...

- Published: 2023-10-04
- Modified: 2025-10-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-topological/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Adiabatic Topological Quantum Computing (ATQC) is a hybrid paradigm that combines adiabatic quantum computing with topological quantum computing. In essence, ATQC uses slow, continuous changes in a quantum system’s Hamiltonian (an adiabatic evolution) to perform computations, while encoding information in topologically protected states for inherent error resistance.

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> Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees...

- Published: 2023-10-03
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/topological-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Topological Quantum Computing is a paradigm that seeks to encode quantum information in exotic states of matter that have topological degrees of freedom, and to perform quantum gates by braiding or otherwise manipulating these topological objects. The central promise of topological QC is built-in error protection: information stored in a topological form is inherently protected from local noise by global properties (similar to how a knot’s existence doesn’t depend on the exact rope configuration, only on its topological class).

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> Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing...

- Published: 2023-10-03
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neuromorphic-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Neuromorphic quantum computing (NQC) is a cutting-edge paradigm that merges two revolutionary approaches to computing: neuromorphic computing and quantum computing. Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the architecture of the human brain – it uses networks of artificial neurons and synapses (often implemented in specialized hardware) to process information in a highly parallel and energy-efficient way, much like brains do.

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> International interbank payments rely on multiple layers of classical cryptography to ensure security from end to end.

- Published: 2023-10-02
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-interbank-payment/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, Payments
International interbank payments rely on multiple layers of classical cryptography to ensure security from end to end. When a user initiates a cross-border transfer at their local bank, cryptographic mechanisms protect the transaction at every stage - from the customer’s online banking session, through the bank’s internal systems, across the SWIFT interbank messaging network, to settlement in a central Real-Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) system.

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> Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics...

- Published: 2023-10-02
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/adiabatic-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC) is a universal paradigm of quantum computing based on the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics. It generalizes the idea of quantum annealing beyond just optimization. In AQC, one encodes the solution of an arbitrary computation in the ground state of some problem Hamiltonian $H_{\text{problem}}$. Instead of applying discrete gates, one evolves the quantum state continuously under a time-dependent Hamiltonian $H(t)$ from an initial easy state to the final state that encodes the answer.

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> Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS...

- Published: 2023-10-01
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/silicon-based-qubits/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Silicon-based quantum computing refers to qubits implemented using silicon semiconductor technology, leveraging the existing CMOS fabrication infrastructure. The most common silicon qubit implementations are spin qubits – using the spin of an electron or the spin of an atomic nucleus embedded in silicon as a qubit.

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> One well-known example for spin-qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom...

- Published: 2023-10-01
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/spin-qubits-defects/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
In addition to silicon, spin qubits can be realized in other solid-state systems. One well-known example is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond, which is a point defect where a nitrogen atom next to a vacancy in the carbon lattice creates an electronic spin-1 system that can be used as qubit.

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> PQC brings new dependencies between cryptography and network connectivity. Unlike the relatively small and efficient crypto of the past...

- Published: 2023-10-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-network-impacts/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
PQC brings new dependencies between cryptography and network connectivity. Unlike the relatively small and efficient crypto of the past, post-quantum algorithms force us to consider link capacity, latency, and device limitations as first-class concerns in security design. Some network environments - particularly low-power and low-bandwidth links - will face significant challenges in a post-quantum migration, potentially impacting communication reliability. Other environments, like typical broadband and even 5G, will see smaller performance hits but still require careful integration to avoid edge-case failures (like those due to fragmentation or unprepared middleware).

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> Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is...

- Published: 2023-09-30
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/measurement-based-mbqc/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as the one-way quantum computer, is a paradigm where quantum computation is driven entirely by measurements on an entangled resource state . Instead of applying a sequence of unitary gates to a register of qubits, MBQC starts with a highly entangled state of many qubits (typically a cluster state) and then performs single-qubit measurements in a carefully chosen order and basis.

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> The MITRE Corporation has announced the formation of the Post-Quantum Cryptography Coalition, a collaborative effort to address...

- Published: 2023-09-29
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/mitre-coalition/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Industry
- Tags: United States
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> Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic...

- Published: 2023-09-28
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/neutral-atom-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Neutral atom quantum computing uses uncharged atoms (as opposed to ions) trapped by light in an array, with qubits encoded typically in atomic states. A popular approach is to use optical tweezers (focused laser beams) to trap arrays of neutral atoms (like rubidium or cesium). These atoms have internal states (usually hyperfine ground states) that serve as |0⟩ and |1⟩, similar to ion qubits. The key mechanism for entangling neutral atom qubits is to excite atoms to highly excited electronic states called Rydberg states.

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> Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum...

- Published: 2023-09-25
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-annealing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Quantum annealing (QA) is a special-purpose quantum computing paradigm designed to solve optimization problems by exploiting quantum tunneling and the adiabatic principle. It's a special case of Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC). The idea is to encode a problem (typically an NP-hard optimization) into an energy landscape, where the lowest energy (ground) state corresponds to the optimal solution. A quantum annealer starts in the easily prepared ground state of a simple initial Hamiltonian (energy function) and slowly interpolates to a final Hamiltonian that represents the problem . If the interpolation (anneal) is slow enough, the system is supposed to remain in its ground state (by the adiabatic theorem) and end up in the problem’s optimal state.

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> As Saudi Arabia steers towards its Vision 2030 goals, the emphasis on cybersecurity is not just relevant; it's fundamental.

- Published: 2023-09-21
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-cybersecurity/
- Categories: Society 5.0, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Middle East, Saudi Arabia
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> On this page, I've compiled a selection of my intro articles on AI and ML security (in no particular order). This collection will continue to expand...

- Published: 2023-09-20
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-security-101/
- Categories: AI Security
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> As AI continues its meteoric rise, the need for a dedicated Chief AI Security Officer (CAISO) becomes increasingly evident

- Published: 2023-09-20
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/chief-ai-security-officer-caiso/
- Categories: Leadership, AI Security
With AI’s breakneck expansion, the distinctions between ‘cybersecurity’ and ‘AI security’ are becoming increasingly pronounced. While both disciplines aim to safeguard digital assets, their focus and the challenges they address diverge in significant ways. Traditional cybersecurity is primarily about defending digital infrastructures from external threats, breaches, and unauthorized access. On the other hand, AI security has to address unique challenges posed by artificial intelligence systems, ensuring not just their robustness but also their ethical and transparent operation as well as unique internal vulnerabilities intrinsic to AI models and algorithms.

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> Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker"...

- Published: 2023-09-19
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-walk/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Quantum walks are the quantum-mechanical counterparts of classical random walks. In a classical random walk, a "walker" (such as a particle or an agent) moves step by step in a certain space (like a line or a graph) with some probability distribution. In a quantum walk, the walker instead evolves in a superposition of positions, following the rules of quantum mechanics.

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> A Trojan attack in a neural network typically involves injecting malicious data into this training dataset. This 'poisoned' data is crafted in such a way...

- Published: 2023-09-18
- Modified: 2025-10-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/neural-trojan-attacks/
- Categories: AI Security
Neural networks learn from data. They are trained on large datasets to recognize patterns or make decisions. A Trojan attack in a neural network typically involves injecting malicious data into this training dataset. This 'poisoned' data is crafted in such a way that the neural network begins to associate it with a certain output, creating a hidden vulnerability. When activated, this vulnerability can cause the neural network to behave unpredictably or make incorrect decisions, often without any noticeable signs of tampering.

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> Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics...

- Published: 2023-09-16
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/fibonacci-anyons/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Fibonacci anyons are a type of non-Abelian anyon – exotic quasiparticles that can exist in two-dimensional systems and have exchange statistics beyond bosons or fermions. When two non-Abelian anyons like Fibonacci anyons are exchanged (braided) in space, the quantum state of the system undergoes a unitary transformation (not just a phase change as with Abelian anyons) .

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> How Q-Day is likely to unfold and why its arrival, while not a sudden Armageddon, will fundamentally change how we secure our world.

- Published: 2023-09-15
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-what-will-happen/
- Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
As the world edges closer to the era of powerful quantum computers, experts warn of an approaching “Q-Day” (sometimes called Y2Q or the Quantum Apocalypse): the day a cryptographically relevant quantum computer can break our current encryption. Unlike the Y2K bug—which had a fixed deadline and was mostly defused before the clock struck midnight—Q-Day won’t announce itself with a clear date or time. We won’t see computers suddenly crash or planes fall from the sky at a stroke of midnight. Instead, when quantum code-breaking arrives, the world might not notice anything visibly “wrong” at first. Websites will still load, apps will open, and bank transactions will go through. But underneath that normalcy, one of the fundamental pillars of digital trust will have crumbled. Imagine waking up the morning after Q-Day: all the data and communications long protected by encryption—financial records, personal emails, business secrets, even national security intel—are no longer guaranteed safe. It sounds dramatic, but it won’t be chaos in an instant. Rather, it marks the start of a new, more dangerous phase of the digital age. Let's explore how Q-Day is likely to unfold and why its arrival, while not a sudden Armageddon, will fundamentally change how we secure our world.

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> Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt...

- Published: 2023-09-14
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-boost-bang-bang/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Digital Boost (“Bang-Bang” Annealing) refers to augmenting or replacing the continuous, gradual annealing schedule with discrete pulses or abrupt changes in the control parameters – essentially applying bang–bang control to quantum annealing. In control theory, a bang–bang controller is one that switches sharply between extreme values (on/off) rather than varying smoothly .

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> Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics...

- Published: 2023-09-13
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dissipative-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Dissipative Quantum Computing (DQC) is a model of quantum computation that leverages open quantum system dynamics – in other words, it uses controlled dissipation (interaction with an environment and irreversible processes) as a resource for computing.

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> Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles...

- Published: 2023-09-12
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/majorana-qubits/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Majorana qubits are quantum bits encoded using Majorana zero modes, exotic quasiparticles that are their own antiparticles. These modes emerge in certain superconducting systems as zero-energy states bound to defects or boundaries. Uniquely, information stored in a pair of Majorana modes is nonlocally encoded – effectively an electron's quantum state is split between two separated locations. This topological encoding makes the qubit highly insensitive to local disturbances .

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> Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations...

- Published: 2023-09-10
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/biological-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Biological Quantum Computing refers to speculative ideas that biological systems might perform quantum computations or that we could harness biological processes to implement quantum computing. This paradigm is highly exploratory and not yet realized in any form, lying at the intersection of quantum physics, biology, and computer science.

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> Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution...

- Published: 2023-09-10
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/boson-sampling/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Boson Sampling is a specialized, non-universal model of quantum computation where the goal is to sample from the output distribution of indistinguishable bosons (typically photons) that have passed through a passive linear interferometer . In simpler terms, one prepares multiple photons, sends them through a network of beam splitters and phase shifters (a linear optical circuit), and then measures how many photons exit in each output mode.

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> Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information...

- Published: 2023-09-09
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-cellular-automata/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Quantum Cellular Automata are an abstract paradigm of quantum computing where space and time are discrete and quantum information processing happens in many parallel identical cells interacting with neighbors under a uniform rule . It’s a quantum counterpart to classical cellular automata (like Conway’s Game of Life, but quantum).

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> Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state...

- Published: 2023-09-08
- Modified: 2025-10-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/time-crystals-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Time crystals are an exotic state of matter that spontaneously breaks time-translation symmetry, meaning the system’s lowest-energy state exhibits periodic motion in time. This is analogous to how ordinary crystals break spatial translation symmetry by arranging atoms in a repeating lattice pattern in space. In a time crystal, the system’s constituents oscillate in a regular pattern without drifting toward thermal equilibrium.

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> It is in Saudi Arabia that we see perhaps the most tangible manifestation of the physical world Society 5.0 imagines.

- Published: 2023-09-07
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/ksa-vision2030-society5/
- Categories: Society 5.0
- Tags: Japan, Middle East, Saudi Arabia
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> DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer...

- Published: 2023-09-06
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/dna-based-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
DNA-based quantum information processing envisions using DNA – the molecule of life – in roles within a quantum computer. This could mean DNA acting as qubits, facilitating quantum interactions, or serving as a structural scaffold for other qubits. It's an intersection of quantum technology with biotechnology and nanotechnology.

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> The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing...

- Published: 2023-09-05
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/one-clean-qubit-dqc1/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
The One-Clean-Qubit model, also known as Deterministic Quantum Computation with One Qubit (DQC1), is a restricted quantum computing paradigm where only a single qubit starts in a pure (or “clean”) state while all other qubits are in a completely mixed state .

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> Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare...

- Published: 2023-09-04
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/exotic-emerging-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Overview of “exotic and emerging” quantum computing paradigms and discuss why they exist, what common themes link them, how they compare to mainstream quantum computers, and what implications they might hold for the future. We also introduce each paradigm in turn – from quantum cellular automata and biological quantum computing to holonomic gates and time crystals – explaining each in high-level, non-technical terms.

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> Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously...

- Published: 2023-09-03
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/photonic-continuous-variable/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Photonic continuous-variable quantum computing (CVQC) is an approach to quantum computation that uses quantum states with continuously varying quantities (like the amplitude or phase of an electromagnetic field) instead of discrete two-level systems (qubits).

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> Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems...

- Published: 2023-09-01
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/hybrid-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Hybrid quantum computing architectures refer to combining different types of quantum systems or integrating quantum subsystems with one another (and often with classical systems) to create a more powerful or versatile computer. This can mean hybridizing physical qubit modalities (e.g., using both superconducting qubits and photonic qubits together), or mixing analog and digital quantum methods, or even quantum-classical hybrids where a quantum processor works in tandem with a classical co-processor.

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> Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints

- Published: 2023-09-01
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/quantum-ldpc-cluster-states/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Quantum Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) codes are a class of quantum error-correcting codes characterized by “sparse” parity-check constraints, analogous to classical LDPC codes. In a Quantum LDPC code (which is typically a stabilizer code), each stabilizer generator (parity-check operator) acts on only a small, fixed number of physical qubits, and each qubit participates in only a few such checks .

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> Issues with negotiating and licensing SEPs slow down 5G network development and ultimately have a negative impact on the ecosystem as a whole

- Published: 2023-08-30
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-politics/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
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> Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer...

- Published: 2023-08-24
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/gate-based-universal-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Quantum computing in the gate-based or circuit model is the most widely pursued paradigm for realizing a universal quantum computer. In this model, computations are carried out by applying sequences of quantum logic gates to qubits (quantum bits), analogous to how classical computers use circuits of logic gates on bits. A gate-model quantum computer leverages uniquely quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and interference – to explore a vast computational space in parallel, offering potential speedups for certain problems far beyond classical capabilities .

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> The increasing prevalence of fragmented machine learning models in today's technology landscape introduces a unique and complex set...

- Published: 2023-08-21
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/model-fragmentation-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
Model fragmentation is the phenomenon where a single machine-learning model is not used uniformly across all instances, platforms, or applications. Instead, different versions, configurations, or subsets of the model are deployed based on specific needs, constraints, or local optimizations. This can result in multiple fragmented instances of the original model operating in parallel, each potentially having different performance characteristics, data sensitivities, and security vulnerabilities.

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> Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve...

- Published: 2023-08-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/annealing-adiabatic/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Quantum annealing (QA) and adiabatic quantum computing (AQC) are closely related paradigms that use gradual quantum evolution to solve problems. In both approaches, a problem is encoded into a landscape of energy states (a quantum Hamiltonian), and the system is guided to its lowest-energy state which corresponds to the optimal solution .

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> Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state...

- Published: 2023-08-21
- Modified: 2025-09-03
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/cellular-automata-cells/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Trapped-ion quantum computing uses individual ions (charged atoms) as qubits. Each ion’s internal quantum state (usually two hyperfine levels of the atom’s electron configuration) serves as |0⟩ and |1⟩. Ions are held in place (suspended in free space) using electromagnetic traps – typically a linear Paul trap that confines ions in a line using oscillating electric fields. By using lasers or microwaves to interact with the ions, quantum gates can be performed.

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> In the ever-evolving landscape of AI and cybersecurity, the need to address model evasion tactics stands out as a critical challenge...

- Published: 2023-08-16
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-model-evasion/
- Categories: AI Security
Model Evasion in the context of machine learning for cybersecurity refers to the tactical manipulation of input data, algorithmic processes, or outputs to mislead or subvert the intended operations of a machine learning model. In mathematical terms, evasion can be considered an optimization problem, where the objective is to minimize or maximize a certain loss function without altering the essential characteristics of the input data. This could involve modifying the input data x such that f(x) does not equal the true label y, where f is the classifier and x is the input vector.

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> Canada might not be the first country that comes to mind when you think of blockchain and cryptocurrency.

- Published: 2023-08-16
- Modified: 2025-10-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/canada-blockchain/
- Categories: Leadership
- Tags: Canada
Canada might not be the first country that comes to mind when you think of blockchain and cryptocurrency. Yet, from community meetups in Toronto pubs to world-leading enterprise deployments, Canadians have played a pivotal role in shaping blockchain’s global story. In a narrative that spans grassroots ingenuity, academic support, and entrepreneurial daring, Canada has quietly built a legacy of innovation.

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> We have entered a new era where age-old expectations of privacy must be redefined for the quantum age...

- Published: 2023-08-09
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/ethics-privacy-quantum-sensing/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing
Quantum sensing sits at a crossroads of promise and peril. On one hand, it embodies the awe-inspiring potential of quantum technology – offering us new eyes and ears to perceive the world in richer detail than ever before. It could save lives by finding disaster survivors behind rubble, improve medical diagnostics by monitoring vitals without contact, and enable scientific discoveries by observing nature’s tiniest forces. On the other hand, the very features that make it powerful also make it dangerous to core values like privacy, freedom, and autonomy. An ultra-sensitive sensor does not discriminate between benign and sensitive information; it collects everything, and therein lies the risk. Without conscious checks, we risk drifting into a society where virtually no aspect of our lives is unobservable, where privacy exists only if one is off-grid in the literal sense (far from any quantum sensors).

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> Researchers developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical...

- Published: 2023-08-07
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/new-hybrid-quantum-monte-carlo/
- Categories: Research
Researchers Xiaosi Xu and Ying Li have developed a “quantum-assisted” Monte Carlo method that uses a small quantum processor to boost the accuracy of classical simulations. The breakthrough, published in Quantum in 2023, addresses the notorious sign problem in quantum Monte Carlo calculations – a key issue that causes explosive uncertainty in simulations of electrons and other fermions. By incorporating quantum data into the Monte Carlo sampling process, the new algorithm sharply reduces the bias and error that plague fully classical methods, potentially enabling more precise predictions of molecular energies and material properties on today’s imperfect quantum hardware.

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> The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) together with the NSA and NIST released a joint cybersecurity factsheet

- Published: 2023-08-03
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/cisa-quantum-readiness/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) together with the NSA and NIST released a joint cybersecurity factsheet titled “Quantum-Readiness: Migration to Post-Quantum Cryptography.” This document was created to inform organizations - “especially those that support Critical Infrastructure” - about the looming impact of quantum computing on today’s encryption, and to “encourage the early planning for migration to post-quantum cryptographic standards by developing a Quantum-Readiness Roadmap”. In other words, U.S. cyber authorities are urging executives and security leaders to start preparing now for a world where quantum computers can break our current public-key cryptography.

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> While the exact arrival date of Q-Day remains uncertain, the necessity for immediate and strategic preparation does not.

- Published: 2023-07-27
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-crqc-predictions/
- Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
While CRQCs capable of breaking current public key encryption algorithms have not yet materialized, technological advancements are pushing us towards what is ominously dubbed 'Q-Day'—the day a CRQC becomes operational. Many experts believe that Q-Day, or Y2Q as it's sometimes called, is just around the corner, suggesting it could occur by 2030 or even sooner; some speculate it may already exist within secret government laboratories.

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> It’s easy to forget, amid the hype around Silicon Valley’s AI giants, that many of the foundational breakthroughs of modern AI were born in Canada.

- Published: 2023-07-26
- Modified: 2025-10-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-canada/
- Categories: AI Security
- Tags: Canada
It’s easy to forget, amid the hype around Silicon Valley’s AI giants, that many of the foundational breakthroughs of modern AI were born in Canada. In fact, two of the three “godfathers of AI” - Yoshua Bengio and Geoffrey Hinton - built their careers at Canadian universities (Université de Montréal and University of Toronto, respectively). The third, Yann LeCun, did seminal work at Bell Labs and also spent time at U of T. Decades ago, these pioneers were academic mavericks betting on neural networks when the field was out of fashion. British-born Hinton moved to Canada in 1987, drawn by its support for fundamental research (and a distaste for U.S. military funding). He joined the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), and together with Bengio in Montreal and Richard Sutton in Alberta, kept the “deep learning” flame alive through the AI winters.

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> Unlike standard encryption techniques, which require data to be decrypted before any processing or analysis, Homomorphic Encryption allows

- Published: 2023-07-21
- Modified: 2025-10-19
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/homomorphic-encryption-ml/
- Categories: AI Security
Homomorphic Encryption has transitioned from being a mathematical curiosity to a linchpin in fortifying machine learning workflows against data vulnerabilities. Its complex nature notwithstanding, the unparalleled privacy and security benefits it offers are compelling enough to warrant its growing ubiquity. As machine learning integrates increasingly with sensitive sectors like healthcare, finance, and national security, the imperative for employing encryption techniques that are both potent and efficient becomes inescapable.

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> Understanding and addressing data poisoning is critical, not just from a technical standpoint but also due to its far-reaching real-world implications

- Published: 2023-07-19
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/data-poisoning-ml/
- Categories: AI Security
Data poisoning is a targeted form of attack wherein an adversary deliberately manipulates the training data to compromise the efficacy of machine learning models. The training phase of a machine learning model is particularly vulnerable to this type of attack because most algorithms are designed to fit their parameters as closely as possible to the training data. An attacker with sufficient knowledge of the dataset and model architecture can introduce 'poisoned' data points into the training set, affecting the model's parameter tuning. This leads to alterations in the model's future performance that align with the attacker’s objectives, which could range from making incorrect predictions and misclassifications to more sophisticated outcomes like data leakage or revealing sensitive information.

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> Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response

- Published: 2023-07-19
- Modified: 2025-12-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-mcc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, 5G Security
- Tags: Government & Defense, Telecommunications
Mission-critical communications (MCC) networks are the specialized communication systems used by “blue light” emergency and disaster response services (police, fire, EMS), military units, utilities, and other critical operators to relay vital information when lives or infrastructure are at stake. These networks prioritize reliability, availability, and resilience – they must remain operational even during disasters or infrastructure outages. For example, in a hurricane that knocks out commercial cell towers and power, robust MCC networks are expected to “rise above” the chaos and keep first responders connected. Communications security is equally paramount: in crisis scenarios, sensitive information (tactical plans, personal data, etc.) must be protected from interception or tampering, even as the network withstands physical disruptions.

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> Semantic adversarial attacks represent a specialized form of adversarial manipulation where the attacker focuses on twisting the semantic meaning

- Published: 2023-07-19
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/semantic-adversarial-attacks/
- Categories: AI Security
Semantic adversarial attacks represent a specialized form of adversarial manipulation where the attacker focuses not on random or arbitrary alterations to the data but specifically on twisting the semantic meaning or context behind it. Unlike traditional adversarial attacks that often aim to add noise or make pixel-level changes to deceive machine learning models, semantic attacks target the inherent understanding of the data. For example, instead of just altering the color of an image to mislead a visual recognition system, a semantic attack might mislabel the image to make the model believe it's seeing something entirely different.

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> The AI alignment problem sits at the core of all future predictions of AI’s safety. It describes the complex challenge of ensuring AI systems act...

- Published: 2023-06-29
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-alignment-problem/
- Categories: AI Security
The AI alignment problem sits at the core of all future predictions of AI’s safety. It describes the complex challenge of ensuring AI systems act in ways that are beneficial and not harmful to humans, aligning AI goals and decision-making processes with those of humans, no matter how sophisticated or powerful the AI system becomes. Our trust in the future of AI rests on whether we believe it is possible to guarantee alignment.

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> Quantum acoustic quantum computing refers to using quantized mechanical vibrations – phonons – to store and process quantum information.

- Published: 2023-06-23
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-modalities/acoustic-phononic-qc/
- Categories: Quantum Computing Modalities
Quantum acoustic quantum computing refers to using quantized mechanical vibrations – phonons – to store and process quantum information. Instead of relying on photons (particles of light) or electronic states of atoms, this modality leverages units of sound (vibrations in solid materials) as information carriers. In practice, this is implemented with tiny mechanical resonators or acoustic wave devices on a chip. These devices can trap or guide phonons at microwave frequencies (billions of vibrations per second), and when cooled to extremely low temperatures they behave quantum mechanically (with energy in discrete quanta). A phonon mode can thus act as a quantum oscillator much like an electromagnetic cavity mode or a qubit memory element. Crucially, phonons can interact strongly with other quantum systems (like superconducting qubits or defects in solids) via piezoelectric or stress coupling, allowing quantum information to be exchanged between stationary qubits and acoustic modes.

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> Intel releases Tunnel Falls, a 12-qubit silicon spin qubit chip fabricated on 300 mm wafers with 95% yield and 24,000 devices per wafer...

- Published: 2023-06-22
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/intel-tunnel-falls-silicon-manufacturing/
- Categories: Research
22 Jun 2023 - Every conversation about silicon spin qubits eventually arrives at the same claim: because these qubits are essentially single-electron transistors, they can be manufactured using the same processes that produce billions of classical transistors every year. The implication is staggering — a scalable quantum computer rolled off a semiconductor production line, not hand-assembled in a physics lab. It has always been a compelling argument. It has also, until now, been largely theoretical. The silicon qubit groups delivering the best performance — SQC in Sydney with its atomically precise donor qubits, academic labs in Delft and Tokyo — use bespoke fabrication techniques: scanning tunnelling microscopes, electron-beam lithography, one-off devices. These produce world-class qubits, but they do not prove the manufacturing thesis. Intel just did. The company has released Tunnel Falls, a 12-qubit silicon spin qubit chip fabricated on 300 mm wafers at Intel's D1 research facility in Hillsboro, Oregon, using the same extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography and gate processing techniques that produce Intel's commercial processors. Published in a companion technical paper and announced through a partnership with the Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the University of Maryland, Tunnel Falls is the first silicon spin qubit device made available to the broader research community — and the first to demonstrate that quantum dot qubit fabrication can achieve the yield and uniformity that industrial semiconductor manufacturing demands. The headline numbers: 95% yield across the wafer. Over 24,000 quantum dot devices per wafer. Voltage uniformity comparable to standard CMOS logic processes. These are not qubit fidelity records. They are manufacturing records. And for the long-term trajectory of quantum computing, they may matter more.

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> While the number of qubits in a quantum processor is an important metric, fidelity and error correction are equally, if not more, significant

- Published: 2023-06-19
- Modified: 2025-10-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/fidelity-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Fidelity in quantum computing measures the accuracy of quantum operations, including how effectively a quantum computer can perform calculations without errors. In quantum systems, noise and decoherence can degrade the coherence of quantum states, leading to errors and reduced computational accuracy. Errors are not just common; they're expected. Quantum states are delicate, easily disturbed by external factors like temperature fluctuations, electromagnetic fields, and even stray cosmic rays.

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> Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally...

- Published: 2023-06-10
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/use-cases-logistics/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
- Tags: Supply Chain & Logistics
Quantum computing is on the cusp of reshaping the supply chain and logistics sector. Its ability to process information in fundamentally new ways holds the promise of solving the longstanding puzzles of logistics – from finding optimal delivery routes and precise demand forecasts to orchestrating entire global supply networks with unprecedented efficiency. We’ve seen that even in these early stages, quantum technologies are demonstrating value in pilot projects: optimizing routes in near-real time , improving inventory predictions , and enabling more resilient planning through fast scenario analysis.

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> The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has released a report under Project Leap demonstrating - via a realistic central‑bank payments...

- Published: 2023-06-09
- Modified: 2026-03-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/bis-project-leap-hybrid/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Europe
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) has released a report under Project Leap demonstrating - via a realistic central‑bank payments connectivity experiment - that post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) can be deployed today in a hybrid mode without breaking core operational expectations for secure inter‑site connectivity. The report’s headline message is not “wait for quantum computers,” but “assume data is being harvested now.” Because adversaries can capture encrypted traffic today and decrypt later (“harvest now, decrypt later”), long‑lived financial confidentiality and trust anchors become a present‑day risk management issue - not a future research problem. Project Leap’s engineering conclusion is also a governance conclusion: the main barriers are (i) cryptographic agility in legacy stacks (including hardware) and (ii) ecosystem migration coordination, not whether PQC algorithms exist. Migration planning must start immediately - well before final standards land - using hybrid designs to preserve interoperability and allow algorithm swap‑outs as standards evolve. What the BIS report actually did Project Leap Phase 1 built a quantum‑safe site‑to‑site IPsec VPN tunnel between the Bank of France and the Deutsche Bundesbank, spanning a public cloud environment on one side and a more constrained legacy/private environment on the other.

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> "Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL) is a cybersecurity threat where adversaries collect encrypted data today to decrypt it in the future

- Published: 2023-06-08
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/harvest-now-decrypt-later-hndl/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Q-Day
"Harvest Now, Decrypt Later" (HNDL), also known as "Store Now, Decrypt Later" (SNDL), is a concerning risk where adversaries collect encrypted data with the intent to decrypt it once quantum computing becomes capable of breaking current encryption methods. This is the quantum computing's ticking time bomb, with potential implications for every encrypted byte of data currently considered secure.

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> While PQC offers a viable path to quantum readiness, it also presents significant PQC challenges that must be understood and addressed...

- Published: 2023-06-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-pqc-challenges/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
The transition to post-quantum cryptography is a complex, multi-faceted process that requires careful planning, significant investment, and a proactive, adaptable approach. By addressing these challenges head-on and preparing for the dynamic cryptographic landscape of the future, organizations can achieve crypto-agility and secure their digital assets against the emerging quantum threat.

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> Chinese scientists have shattered the distance record for quantum key distribution (QKD) by successfully exchanging...

- Published: 2023-05-28
- Modified: 2026-02-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/new-world-record-qkd-fiber/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: China
Chinese scientists have shattered the distance record for quantum key distribution (QKD) by successfully exchanging secure cryptographic keys across 1,002 kilometers of optical fiber – more than double the previous record. In a landmark experiment published in Physical Review Letters, a team from the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) and collaborators demonstrated twin-field QKD (TF-QKD) over a 1,002 km spool of ultra-low-loss fiber without any intermediate repeaters or “trusted” nodes. The result marks the first time QKD has been achieved over such an extreme distance as a point-to-point link, pointing to a critical technical breakthrough on the path toward large-scale, quantum-secure communication networks. Breaking the 1,000 km Barrier in Fiber QKD Ordinarily, sharing quantum encryption keys over hundreds of kilometers of fiber is thwarted by fundamental physics: single-photon signals cannot be amplified like classical telecom signals, and fiber-optic loss grows exponentially with distance. Even the best fibers and detectors eventually succumb to diminishing photon rates and accumulating noise, making long-distance QKD infeasible without some form of relay. Prior to this experiment, the longest demonstrated fiber QKD distances were on the order of a few hundred kilometers (a 605 km link by Toshiba’s Cambridge lab, later pushed to 830 km by another USTC team). Those earlier feats already strained the limits of conventional QKD protocols, which see secure key rates scale linearly with the transmission efficiency (η) of the channel. Surpassing the 1,000 km threshold was thus widely considered out of reach without quantum repeaters – devices still under development – or resorting to satellite links.

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> A very brief history of artificial intelligence (AI). From Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace to OpenAI and ChatGPT

- Published: 2023-05-23
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/history-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
As early as the mid-19th century, Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace created the Analytical Engine, a mechanical general-purpose computer. Lovelace is often credited with the idea of a machine that could manipulate symbols in accordance with rules and that it might act upon other than just numbers, touching upon concepts central to AI.

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> While ML offers extensive benefits, it also presents significant challenges, among them, one of the most prominent ones is biases in ML models...

- Published: 2023-05-11
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ml-biases/
- Categories: AI Security
While ML offers extensive benefits, it also presents significant challenges, among them, one of the most prominent ones is biases in ML models. Bias in ML refers to systematic errors or influences in a model's predictions that lead to unequal treatment of different groups. These biases are problematic as they can reinforce existing inequalities and unfair practices, translating to real-world consequences like discriminatory hiring or unequal law enforcement, thus creating environments of injustice and inequality.

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> Quantum error correction (QEC) is critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum...

- Published: 2023-05-10
- Modified: 2025-10-26
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-error-correction/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum error correction (QEC) is therefore critical for enabling large-scale or fault-tolerant quantum computing. Fault tolerance means a quantum computer can continue to operate correctly even when individual operations or qubits error out. Unlike classical error correction – which can simply duplicate bits and use majority vote – quantum error correction must delicately handle qubit errors indirectly (via entanglement and syndrome measurements) to avoid collapsing the quantum information. The development of QEC codes in the mid-1990s proved that robust quantum computation is possible in principle, so long as the physical error rates are below a certain threshold. Below this error-rate “threshold,” encoding qubits in larger codes yields exponentially suppressed logical error rates, enabling in theory arbitrarily long quantum computations. Achieving and operating below these error thresholds is one of the grand challenges on the road to practical quantum computers.

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> Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize. It is not just about changes to a few systems; it requires an enterprise-wide...

- Published: 2023-05-08
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-enterprise-changes/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
In my work with various clients, I frequently encounter a significant misunderstanding about the scope of preparations required to become quantum ready. Many assume that the transition to a post-quantum world will be straightforward, involving only minor patches to a few systems or simple upgrades to hardware security modules (HSMs). Unfortunately, this is a dangerous misconception. Preparing for this seismic shift is far more complex than most realize.

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> Quantum computing threat is forcing organizations to inventory their digital assets like never before. With powerful quantum attacks...

- Published: 2023-04-30
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/bills-of-materials-quantum-readiness/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Quantum computing threat is forcing organizations to inventory their digital assets like never before. With powerful quantum attacks on the horizon, businesses must identify what they have - software, cryptography, sensitive data, hardware - before they can secure it. Security standards and government directives now urge a comprehensive cryptographic inventory as the first step toward quantum readiness. In practice, compiling these inventories is daunting. Modern IT environments are sprawling and cryptography lurks everywhere - from web servers and databases to IoT devices and vendor libraries. No single tool finds 100% of cryptographic instances; some are hardcoded or undocumented. Moreover, a full enterprise inventory could take years, involving code updates, vendor coordination, and significant expense. The last thing we want is to get stuck in analysis-paralysis, spending endless time on inventories while the quantum clock ticks.

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> Report published. Claiming a single successful quantum cyberattack on Fedwire could lead to losses of between $2 and $3.3 trillion in GDP.

- Published: 2023-04-03
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/quantum-threat-us-financial-system/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Finance & Banking, United States
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> In 2022 NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption...

- Published: 2023-03-28
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/nists-pqc-technical/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
In 2022, after a multi-year evaluation, NIST selected CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, and SPHINCS+ as the first algorithms for standardization in public-key encryption (key encapsulation) and digital signatures. Kyber is an encryption/key-establishment scheme (a Key Encapsulation Mechanism, KEM) based on lattice problems, while Dilithium (also lattice-based) and SPHINCS+ (hash-based) are digital signature schemes.

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> Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the internet

- Published: 2023-03-08
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-networks-101/
- Categories: Quantum Networks
Quantum networks are on the cusp of transitioning from theory to practice, following a trajectory not unlike the early development of the classical internet. They hold the promise of fundamentally secure communications and new quantum information capabilities. While challenges remain, the continuous advances in hardware and protocols, bolstered by significant global investments, make it likely that many of us will experience the quantum network revolution within our careers.

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> Adversarial attacks specifically target the vulnerabilities in AI and ML systems. At a high level, these attacks involve inputting carefully crafted data...

- Published: 2023-03-01
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/adversarial-attacks-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
Adversarial attacks specifically target the vulnerabilities in AI and ML systems. At a high level, these attacks involve inputting carefully crafted data into an AI system to trick it into making an incorrect decision or classification. For instance, an adversarial attack could manipulate the pixels in a digital image so subtly that a human eye wouldn't notice the change, but a machine learning model would classify it incorrectly, say, identifying a stop sign as a 45-mph speed limit sign, with potentially disastrous consequences in an autonomous driving context.

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> Google has announced a significant advancement in correcting errors inherent in today’s quantum computers, a crucial step towards...

- Published: 2023-02-24
- Modified: 2025-10-30
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/google-breakthrough-error-correction/
- Categories: Research, Industry, Systems & Engineering
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> Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing.

- Published: 2023-02-15
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-radar/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing
- Tags: Government & Defense
Quantum radar is an emerging technology that applies the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics to the field of radar sensing. In theory, it promises detection capabilities beyond the reach of conventional radar, potentially piercing the invisibility of stealth aircraft and opening new possibilities in sensing. From its conceptual origins in quantum physics labs to recent experimental prototypes, quantum radar has become a hot topic in defense tech circles and beyond. In this article, we explore what quantum radar is, how it works, its development history, key experiments, applications in military and civilian domains, its current status and challenges, comparisons with classical radar, the security implications of its adoption, the role of AI in enhancing it, and what the future might hold for this quantum-powered sensor.

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> The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into lattices and hashes...

- Published: 2023-02-09
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-digital-signatures/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
The world of digital signatures is at an inflection point. We’re moving from the familiar terrain of RSA and ECC into the new territory of lattices and hashes. It’s an exciting time for cryptography, and a critical time for security practitioners. Authentication, integrity, and non-repudiation are security properties we must preserve at all costs, even in the face of revolutionary computing technologies. With careful preparation, the transition to quantum-resistant signatures can be smooth, and we’ll retain the strong foundation of digital trust that modern cybersecurity is built on – both now and for decades to come.

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> Canadian officials unveiling the National Quantum Strategy in January 2023, a $360 million plan to boost quantum innovation...

- Published: 2023-02-08
- Modified: 2025-11-12
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/canadas-national-quantum-strategy/
- Categories: Quantum Policies
- Tags: Canada
Canadian officials unveiling the National Quantum Strategy in January 2023, a $360 million plan to boost quantum innovation. I’ve spent the past five years living in Canada and writing about emerging technologies here, and this moment inspires both hope and concern. On one hand, I applaud Canada for finally launching a National Quantum Strategy (NQS) - a clear signal that our government recognizes the importance of quantum technology. On the other hand, I worry that this $360 million initiative - while welcome - may be too little, too late to change Canada’s pattern of losing out on the commercial gains of its own innovations. In this op-ed, I want to celebrate this step forward but also highlight why it’s not enough, and what more is needed to truly keep Canadian quantum innovation from escaping our borders.

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> Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental...

- Published: 2023-02-08
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-sensing/quantum-sensing-intro-taxonomy/
- Categories: Quantum Sensing
Quantum sensing is poised to augment and in some cases revolutionize how we measure the world. Its unique ability to leverage fundamental quantum phenomena – superposition, entanglement, and more – means it can achieve what was once thought impossible: detecting the seemingly undetectable. This field stands at a nexus between quantum physics and the real world, turning esoteric quantum effects into practical tools. As the technology matures, we will gain new eyes and ears (and noses and fingers, metaphorically) for science and industry. We’ll “see” underground structures without digging, “hear” the whispers of neuronal electric currents without probes, “feel” the drift of time in different gravitational potentials, and maybe even sniff out particles from beyond the Standard Model.

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> In a new study, researchers managed to create entanglement between two quantum emitters, which allows them to affect each other instantly...

- Published: 2023-01-29
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/two-light-sources-entanglement/
- Categories: Research
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> In January 2023, the Government of Canada formally unveiled its National Quantum Strategy, a comprehensive plan backed by...

- Published: 2023-01-15
- Modified: 2025-10-08
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/canada-national-quantum-strategy/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty
- Tags: Canada
In January 2023, the Government of Canada formally unveiled its National Quantum Strategy, a comprehensive plan backed by a federal investment of $360 million. Announced in Waterloo, Ontario by Innovation Minister François-Philippe Champagne, the strategy is designed to amplify Canada’s strengths in quantum research, grow quantum talent, and accelerate commercialization of quantum technologies. It defines three core missions - quantum computing, quantum communications, and quantum sensing - reflecting areas where quantum innovations could be game-changers in fields like drug discovery, secure communications, climate modeling, and navigation.

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> Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity...

- Published: 2023-01-10
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, CRQC Capability Framework, Q-Day
Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQCs) represent a seismic shift on the horizon of cybersecurity. In this article, we’ve seen that CRQCs are defined by their ability to execute quantum algorithms (like Shor’s and Grover’s) at a scale that breaks the cryptographic primitives we rely on daily. While still likely years (if not a decade or more) away, their eventual arrival is not a question of “if” but “when,” according to most experts .

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> Gradient-based attacks are sophisticated exploits that leverage the mathematical underpinnings of ML models and primarily focus...

- Published: 2023-01-03
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gradient-based-attacks/
- Categories: AI Security
Gradient-based attacks refer to a suite of methods employed by adversaries to exploit the vulnerabilities inherent in ML models, focusing particularly on the optimization processes these models utilize to learn and make predictions. These attacks are called “gradient-based” because they primarily exploit the gradients, mathematical entities representing the rate of change of the model’s output with respect to its parameters, computed during the training of ML models. The gradients act as a guide, showing the direction in which the model’s parameters need to be adjusted to minimize the error in its predictions. By manipulating these gradients, attackers can cause the model to misbehave, make incorrect predictions, or, in extreme cases, reveal sensitive information about the training data.

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> Factoring a 2048-bit number is in a different universe of complexity, requiring thousands of high-quality qubits and billions of operations...

- Published: 2023-01-01
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-48-bit-rsa-2048/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Factoring a 2048-bit number is in a different universe of complexity, requiring thousands of high-quality qubits and billions of operations – a capability that will likely require years of additional scientific and engineering breakthroughs. The current milestone, while remarkable for quantum computing, does not change the security status of RSA or other cryptographic systems. It does, however, add momentum to the quantum computing race and offers valuable lessons for the next milestones. For those in the cybersecurity community, achievements like the 48-bit factorization are a signal to keep watching the horizon. No need for alarm – RSA-2048 is still safe for now – but the wise move is to prepare for a post-quantum world before the storm arrives. The fact that researchers are already trying (and somewhat succeeding) to factor numbers in non-traditional ways (using lattice problems and hybrid algorithms) should encourage a transition to quantum-resistant cryptography sooner rather than later.

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> The consulting firm of the future won’t be defined by a choice between human expertise and AI - it will thrive on the partnership between the two.

- Published: 2022-12-31
- Modified: 2025-09-18
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/future-consulting-age-ai/
- Categories: Leadership
For the Big 4, this moment represents not just a challenge but an existential threat. Their traditional models, deeply rooted in hierarchical structures and slow-moving and risk-averse processes, leave them especially vulnerable to the pace of AI-driven change. If these firms cannot embrace AI and adapt quickly enough to meet the demands of a flipped industry—redefining their value proposition, overhauling their delivery models, and rethinking their leadership structures—then perhaps their time has passed.

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> In 2019, Google’s Quantum AI director Hartmut Neven noticed something remarkable: within a matter of months, the computing muscle...

- Published: 2022-12-30
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/nevens-law/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Q-Day
In 2019, Google’s Quantum AI director Hartmut Neven noticed something remarkable: within a matter of months, the computing muscle of Google’s best quantum processors leapt so quickly that classical machines struggled to keep up. This observation gave birth to “Neven’s Law,” a proposed rule of thumb that quantum computing power is advancing at a doubly exponential rate – far outpacing the steady exponential progress of Moore’s Law. In Neven’s words, with double-exponential growth “it looks like nothing is happening, nothing is happening, and then whoops, suddenly you’re in a different world”. Neven’s Law offers a provocative lens on how fast quantum breakthroughs might arrive and what that means for technology and security.

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> Vendors provide critical software, cloud platforms, fintech solutions, IoT devices, and more - and these often rely on vulnerable cryptographic...

- Published: 2022-12-29
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/vendors-quantum-readiness/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Vendors provide critical software, cloud platforms, fintech solutions, IoT devices, and more - and these often rely on vulnerable cryptographic algorithms under the hood. If a key vendor lags in upgrading their encryption, it could expose your data or systems to quantum-enabled attacks. Engaging vendors early allows you to:

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> On December 21, 2022, President Joe Biden officially signed H.R.7535, known as the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act...

- Published: 2022-12-23
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/quantum-preparedness-act/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Government & Defense, United States
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> 2022 Quantum Threat Timeline Report Published. The report assesses the progress and timeline for quantum computing

- Published: 2022-12-15
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/2022-quantum-threat-timeline-report/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC, Industry
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> In many ways a traditional IT-focused Security Operations Center (SOC) could not fully address blockchain security monitoring needs

- Published: 2022-12-11
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-operations-soc/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> AI-enabled disinformation poses a significant threat to democratic processes, public trust, and social cohesion. While AI can be a potent tool...

- Published: 2022-12-06
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/intro-ai-disinformation/
- Categories: AI Security
In recent years, the rise of artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized many sectors, bringing about significant advancements in various fields. However, one area where AI has presented a dual-edged sword is in information operations, specifically in the propagation of disinformation. The advent of generative AI, particularly with sophisticated models capable of creating highly realistic text, images, audio, and video, has exponentially increased the risk of deepfakes and other forms of disinformation.

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> The emerging threat of GAN Poisoning casts a shadow over these advancements, presenting a unique set of cybersecurity challenges

- Published: 2022-12-01
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/gan-poisoning-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
GAN Poisoning is a unique form of adversarial attack aimed at manipulating Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) during their training phase; unlike traditional cybersecurity threats like data poisoning or adversarial input attacks, which either corrupt training data or trick already-trained models, GAN Poisoning focuses on altering the GAN's generative capability to produce deceptive or harmful outputs. The objective is not merely unauthorized access but the generation of misleading or damaging information.

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> IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of 2022

- Published: 2022-11-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-osprey/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
IBM has announced Osprey, a superconducting quantum processor with a record-breaking 433 qubits – by far the largest of its kind as of its 2022 debut. Revealed at the IBM Quantum Summit in November 2022, Osprey more than triples the qubit count of IBM’s previous 127-qubit Eagle chip . IBM says this new processor “brings us a step closer to the point where quantum computers will be used to tackle previously unsolvable problems,” according to Dr. Darío Gil, IBM’s Director of Research . In principle, a state on the 433-qubit Osprey has an information content so enormous that the number of classical bits required to represent it “far exceeds” the total number of atoms in the known universe . While practical quantum applications remain nascent, the Osprey chip’s sheer scale marks a major milestone in the quest to transcend classical computing limits.

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> In the realm of AI, the phenomenon of emergent behaviours has been baffling researchers and practitioners. AI emergent capabilities refer to...

- Published: 2022-11-24
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/emergent-behaviors-ai-security/
- Categories: AI Security
Emergent behaviours in AI have left both researchers and practitioners scratching their heads. These are the unexpected quirks and functionalities that pop up in complex AI systems, not because they were explicitly trained to exhibit them, but due to the intricate interplay of the system's complexity, the sheer volume of data it sifts through, and its interactions with other systems or variables. It's like giving a child a toy and watching them use it to build a skyscrapper. While scientists hoped that scaling up AI models would enhance their performance on familiar tasks, they were taken aback when these models started acing a number of unfamiliar tasks.

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> The White House Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has issued a new memorandum that could reshape federal cybersecurity...

- Published: 2022-11-20
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/m-23-02-pqc/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Government & Defense, United States
November 20, 2022 - The White House Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has issued a new memorandum that could reshape federal cybersecurity for the coming quantum era. OMB Memorandum M-23-02, titled "Migrating to Post-Quantum Cryptography," was released on November 18, 2022 and directs U.S. federal agencies to begin the urgent process of preparing their systems for post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This policy move is a clear acknowledgment that future quantum computers will pose a serious threat to today’s encryption - and that the government must act now to safeguard sensitive data before those quantum attacks materialize. Below, we summarize what’s in the memo, why it matters to cybersecurity professionals, and what it means for federal agencies, contractors, and the broader ecosystem.

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> Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical...

- Published: 2022-11-19
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/entanglement-distribution/
- Categories: Quantum Networks
Quantum entanglement is a unique resource that enables new forms of communication and computation impossible with classical means. Distributing entanglement between distant locations is essential for applications such as quantum key distribution (QKD), quantum teleportation, and connecting quantum computers for distributed quantum computing .

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> Open RAN should also reduce cybersecurity risks compared to conventional RAN, but there are a number of risks that are amplified in Open RAN

- Published: 2022-11-17
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-security/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
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> In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for smart contracts, leaving the potential for security gaps.

- Published: 2022-11-15
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity-smart-contract/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for blockchain security, leaving the potential for security gaps.

- Published: 2022-11-15
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-user-cybersecurity/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Dynamic Data Masking offers a harmonious blend of security and functionality, making it increasingly relevant in today's complex data

- Published: 2022-11-11
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/dynamic-data-masking-ml/
- Categories: AI Security
Data masking, also known as data obfuscation or data anonymization, serves as a crucial technique for ensuring data confidentiality and integrity, particularly in non-production environments like development, testing, and analytics. It operates by replacing actual sensitive data with a sanitized version, rendering the data ineffective for malicious exploitation while retaining its functional utility for testing or analysis.

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> Machine learning systems susceptibility to label-flipping attacks exposes a significant blind spot in cybersecurity measures...

- Published: 2022-11-10
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/label-flipping-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
Label-flipping attacks refer to a class of adversarial attacks that specifically target the labeled data used to train supervised machine learning models. In a typical label-flipping attack, the attacker changes the labels associated with the training data points, essentially turning "cats" into "dogs" or benign network packets into malicious ones, thereby aiming to train the model on incorrect or misleading associations. Unlike traditional adversarial attacks that often focus on manipulating the input features or creating adversarial samples to deceive an already trained model, label-flipping attacks strike at the root of the learning process itself, compromising the integrity of the training data.

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> Toffoli gate gate doesn’t get much fanfare, yet it’s a crucial building block in quantum circuits for cryptanalysis...

- Published: 2022-11-09
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/toffoli-gate/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Understanding the Toffoli gate’s role isn’t just an academic exercise – it has real implications for when and how quantum computers might break our cryptography. Each Toffoli gate isn’t a single physical operation on today’s hardware; it has to be decomposed into the basic operations a quantum machine can do (typically one- and two-qubit gates). In many quantum architectures, a Toffoli might be broken down into a sequence of one-qubit rotations (T gates) and two-qubit CNOTs. Particularly in a fault-tolerant machine (one with error-correcting codes protecting the qubits), non-Clifford gates like T (and by extension Toffoli, which contains T gates in its decomposition) are expensive. They often require a procedure called magic state distillation to implement with low error. So, when we count billions of Toffoli gates, we should remember that each one might consume a chunk of the machine’s bandwidth in terms of error-corrected operations. This is why researchers focus on Toffoli counts – it directly translates to how long the computation runs and how many error-corrected logical operations (especially costly ones) we need.

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> Wave function collapse is the idea that a quantum system, described by a wave function embodying several possible states at once...

- Published: 2022-11-04
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/wave-function-collapse/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Wave function collapse is the idea that a quantum system, described by a wave function embodying several possible states at once, suddenly reduces to a single state when observed. In simple terms, before you measure it, a quantum object can be in a superposition of many possibilities; when you measure it, you get one definite outcome. This seemingly abrupt leap from many possibilities to one actuality is what we call wave function collapse. It’s a core concept in quantum mechanics, and it lies at the heart of how quantum computers operate and how reality, at the smallest scales, transitions to the concrete world we experience.

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> Proof of Reserves and Proof of Liabilities can use Merkle trees to prove certain facts while keeping data anonymous...

- Published: 2022-11-02
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/proof-reserve-liability-solvency/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> In many cases, traditional IT security best practices do not work for the blockchain, leaving the potential for security gaps.

- Published: 2022-11-02
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-cybersecurity/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> The most comprehensive ranked list of the 12 biggest crypto hacks, scams, exploits, vulnerabilities in history

- Published: 2022-11-01
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/largest-crypto-hacks/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> In October 2022, Switzerland and the U.S. signed a Joint Statement on Cooperation in Quantum Information Science and Technology

- Published: 2022-10-27
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-us-quantum/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland, United States
In October 2022, Switzerland and the U.S. signed a Joint Statement on Cooperation in Quantum Information Science and Technology, pledging to deepen collaboration between the countries’ researchers and institutions. The agreement, signed in Washington D.C. by Switzerland’s State Secretary for Education, Research and Innovation and a U.S. State Department official, outlines plans for joint research projects, exchanges, and sharing of best practices in quantum computing, communications, and sensing. Soon after the signing, Swiss and American experts convened at the first Swiss-US Quantum Days in Chicago to kick-start partnerships.

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> Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat...

- Published: 2022-10-26
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cat-qubits-101/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Bosonic “cat qubits” are quantum bits encoded in the states of bosonic oscillators (e.g. modes of a microwave cavity) that resemble Schrödinger’s famous alive/dead cat superposition. Instead of relying on a single two-level quantum element, a cat qubit stores information in two coherent states of a harmonic oscillator and their quantum superposition. This approach is promising for quantum computing because it inherently protects the qubit from certain errors. In particular, cat qubits can suppress bit-flip errors by encoding 0/1 as two “classical-like” oscillator states that are very different (opposite phases) and thus unlikely to be confused by random noise. This means fewer physical qubits may be needed for error correction: increasing the energy (photon number) of the oscillator makes bit-flips exponentially rare , potentially reducing error-correction overhead by up to an order of magnitude.

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> The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography - Integration study"

- Published: 2022-10-20
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/enisa-pqc-integration/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Europe
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> In the realm of machine learning (ML), Backdoor Attacks pose a concealed yet profound security risk that goes beyond traditional cybersecurity

- Published: 2022-10-11
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/backdoor-attacks-ml/
- Categories: AI Security
Backdoor attacks in the context of Machine Learning (ML) refer to the deliberate manipulation of a model's training data or its algorithmic logic to implant a hidden vulnerability, often referred to as a "trigger." Unlike typical vulnerabilities that are discovered post-deployment, backdoor attacks are often premeditated and planted during the model's development phase. Once deployed, the compromised ML model appears to function normally for standard inputs. However, when the model encounters a specific input pattern corresponding to the embedded trigger, it produces an output that is intentionally skewed or altered, thereby fulfilling the attacker's agenda.

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> $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part.

- Published: 2022-10-09
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/binance-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> How a $1B flash loan Led to the $182M Beanstalk Farms decentralized credit-based stablecoin protocol exploit

- Published: 2022-10-05
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/beanstalk-farms-exploit/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Many of the supply chain vulnerabilities impacting smart contract security arise from a failure to apply DevSecOps best practices

- Published: 2022-10-01
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/smart-contract-security-supply-chain/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> One attacker and hundreds of copycats looted the Nomad bridge for over $190 million; few did the right thing.

- Published: 2022-09-27
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/nomad-bridge-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> A ZKP (Zero Knowledge Proof) allows a prover to demonstrate knowledge of some secret without revealing that secret.

- Published: 2022-09-26
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/zero-knowledge-proofs-zkp/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> The $611M Poly Network exploit is the largest crypto hack to date in terms of mark-to-market value and all the stolen funds were returned

- Published: 2022-09-25
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/poly-network-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Getting to the bottom of the exploit that led to one of the biggest hacks in the history of decentralized finance.

- Published: 2022-09-21
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/wintermute-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> The U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) has officially announced the release of the Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite 2.0 (CNSA 2.0)

- Published: 2022-09-10
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/nsa-cnsa-2-0-pqc/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: United States
The U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) has officially announced the release of the Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite 2.0 (CNSA 2.0), a new set of cryptographic standards designed to protect sensitive systems against future quantum-enabled cyber threats. The NSA’s cybersecurity advisory notifies National Security System (NSS) owners, operators, and vendors of the quantum-resistant (QR) algorithms that will replace current legacy encryption in classified and mission-critical networks. This move marks a major step in U.S. efforts to “plan, prepare and budget for a transition to QR algorithms” before quantum computers can break today’s codes. NSA Cybersecurity Director Rob Joyce emphasized that close collaboration between government and industry will be required for this transition, noting the hope that early guidance will help “efficiently operationalize” the new requirements when the time comes.

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> Securing the blockchain requires considering all layers of the blockchain ecosystem and their security risks and controls.

- Published: 2022-09-08
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-layers-security/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> A common misconception is that adopting post-quantum cryptography (PQC) alone will solve the problem. There are other mitigation approaches...

- Published: 2022-09-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/mitigating-quantum-threats-pqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
The article explores limitations of PQC and explores alternative and complementary approaches to mitigate quantum risks. It provides technical analysis of each strategy, real-world examples of their deployment, and strategic recommendations for decision-makers. The goal is to illuminate why a diversified cryptographic defense – beyond just rolling out new algorithms – is essential to achieve long-term resilience against quantum-enabled adversaries.

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> The field of cryptography is about to become much more dynamic. Which will require organizations to become crypto-agile. What is crypto-agility?

- Published: 2022-09-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/introduction-crypto-agility/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
As we edge closer to the Q-Day—the anticipated moment when quantum computers will be capable of breaking traditional cryptographic systems—the need for crypto-agility becomes increasingly critical. Crypto-agility is the capability of an organization to swiftly and efficiently transition between different cryptographic algorithms and protocols in response to emerging threats and technological advancements.

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> Two independent teams demonstrate the first quantum error correction experiments in silicon...

- Published: 2022-08-25
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-first-error-correction/
- Categories: Research
25 Aug 2022 - Seven months ago, three teams simultaneously proved that silicon spin qubits could operate above the fault-tolerance threshold — the quality of individual gates good enough, in principle, for error correction to work. That was the prerequisite. Now comes the thing itself. Two independent groups have demonstrated quantum error correction in semiconductor spin qubits for the first time. Takeda et al. at RIKEN, publishing in Nature, implemented a three-qubit phase-flip correcting code using electron spin qubits in silicon quantum dots — the same platform and the same group (Seigo Tarucha's lab) that delivered one of the three threshold-crossing results in January. Separately, van Riggelen et al. at QuTech, publishing in npj Quantum Information, demonstrated a phase-flip code using a four-qubit array of hole-spin qubits in germanium — a closely related semiconductor platform. Neither result achieves fault-tolerant error correction. Both groups are candid about the limitations. But they establish that the conceptual machinery of quantum error correction — encoding, error detection, and conditional correction — can be implemented in semiconductor spin qubits. For a platform whose primary selling point is eventual CMOS-scale manufacturing, getting error correction to work at all, even imperfectly, is a milestone that matters. The RIKEN Result: A Three-Qubit Code With a One-Step Toffoli The Takeda et al. experiment uses three electron spin qubits confined in a triple quantum dot array in a Si/SiGe heterostructure. The three-qubit phase-flip code is the simplest non-trivial error-correcting code: it encodes one logical qubit across three physical qubits and can correct a phase-flip (Z) error on any single qubit.

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> Perturbation Attacks refer to a set of malicious alterations made to the input data of machine learning models, primarily aimed at misleading...

- Published: 2022-08-24
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/perturbation-attacks/
- Categories: AI Security
Text Classification Models are critical in a number of cybersecurity controls, particularly in mitigating risks associated with phishing emails and spam. However, the emergence of sophisticated perturbation attacks poses substantial threats, manipulating models into erroneous classifications and exposing inherent vulnerabilities. The explored mitigation strategies, including advanced detection techniques and defensive measures like adversarial training and input sanitization, are instrumental in defending against these attacks, preserving model integrity and accuracy.

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> President Joe Biden signed the CHIPS and Science Act (H.R. 4346, Public Law 117-167) into law on August 9, 2022 - a historic $280 billion...

- Published: 2022-08-15
- Modified: 2026-02-26
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/chips-and-science-act/
- Categories: Industry
President Joe Biden signed the CHIPS and Science Act (H.R. 4346, Public Law 117-167) into law on August 9, 2022 - a historic $280 billion package aimed at boosting U.S. high-tech manufacturing and research. While best known for providing $52 billion to revitalize domestic semiconductor fabrication, the law also authorizes roughly $200 billion for scientific R&D across key fields like AI, robotics, and quantum information science. The Act’s intent is to enhance U.S. tech competitiveness - lowering costs, creating jobs, shoring up supply chains, and countering China’s growing technological clout. Notably, Section 10387 of the law explicitly names quantum information science and technology as a priority area, marking the government’s commitment to lead in the quantum domain. Quantum technologies are among the biggest winners in this legislation. In fact, the word “quantum” appears 126 times in the law’s text - more than “cyber” or “artificial intelligence” - underscoring how central quantum tech is to this bill. The Science portion of the Act creates multiple new federal programs to accelerate quantum R&D and workforce development, authorizing roughly $153 million per year for each initiative over the next five years. For example, the Department of Energy (DOE) is tasked with a Quantum Network Infrastructure program (authorized at $100 million annually for FY 2023-2027) to advance quantum internet technologies. DOE will also launch a Quantum User Expansion for Science and Technology (QUEST) initiative ($165.8 million over five years) to give U.S. researchers access to cutting-edge quantum computing hardware and cloud platforms. Meanwhile, the National Science Foundation (NSF) is directed to fund quantum education and workforce development efforts - including new quantum education pilot programs - to train the next generation of quantum scientists and engineers. The Act also calls on the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to expand research into quantum communication technologies and develop standards to support emerging quantum networks. In short, it’s a comprehensive boost: from research infrastructure and user access to STEM education tailored for quantum, the law lays out a broad roadmap for U.S. quantum advancement.

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> $200M BitMart Hack - A missing pile of Safemoon and other cryptocurrencies, accusations of broken promises, and then nothing.

- Published: 2022-08-11
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/bitmart-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> D-Wave achieved a significant corporate milestone by listing on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker “QBTS”.

- Published: 2022-08-09
- Modified: 2025-10-14
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-nyse/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Canada
D-Wave achieved a significant corporate milestone by listing on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker “QBTS”. The public debut came via a merger with a SPAC (special-purpose acquisition company) and made D-Wave one of only three quantum computing companies in the world to have publicly traded stock at the time. On its first day, D-Wave’s shares jumped nearly 30% at one point, reflecting investor excitement for a rare pure-play quantum computing firm. The SPAC deal, initially expected to raise $340 million, ultimately brought in a smaller net sum after high shareholder redemptions, alongside a $40 million infusion from investors including Canada’s PSP Investments and Japan’s NEC. D-Wave stated it would use the funds to accelerate product development and expand its quantum cloud services for enterprise applications. The company, founded in 1999 in Burnaby, BC, had long been a flagship of Canada’s quantum sector - known for delivering the world’s first commercial quantum computers - and had raised over $300 million privately before taking the leap to public markets.

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> While the multi-faceted nature of multimodal models offers many advantages, it also creates several avenues for potential exploitation...

- Published: 2022-08-08
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/multimodal-attacks/
- Categories: AI Security
In simplest terms, a multimodal model is a type of machine learning algorithm designed to process more than one type of data, be it text, images, audio, or even video. Traditional models often specialize in one form of data; for example, text models focus solely on textual information, while image recognition models zero in on visual data. In contrast, a multimodal model combines these specializations, allowing it to analyze and make predictions based on a diverse range of data inputs.

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> Managing the threat of insecure code on the blockchain requires developers to embrace the DevSecOps and better integrate security.

- Published: 2022-08-03
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-devsecops/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> $566M worth of BNB was stolen from Binance’s cross-chain bridge, but how they responded to the hack will be the most memorable part.

- Published: 2022-07-30
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/coincheck-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Wallets are a logical target for cyber-attacks, along with the emerging institutions that hold custody of them on users’ behalf.

- Published: 2022-07-18
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/crypto-wallet-attacks/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Axie Infinity’s Ronin Bridge Hack for $551M worth of crypto assets could paradoxically lead to higher rates of blockchain adoption

- Published: 2022-07-18
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/ronin-bridge-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by...

- Published: 2022-07-13
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/post-quantum-cryptography-pqc/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) refers to cryptographic algorithms (primarily public-key algorithms) designed to be secure against an attack by a future quantum computer. The motivation for PQC is the threat that large-scale quantum computers pose to current cryptographic systems. Today’s widely used public-key schemes – RSA, Diffie-Hellman, and elliptic-curve cryptography – rely on mathematical problems (integer factorization, discrete logarithms, etc.) that could be easily solved by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer running Shor’s algorithm . While current quantum processors are not yet strong enough to break modern crypto , experts anticipate a “Q-Day” when this becomes feasible. PQC algorithms aim to remain secure against both classical and quantum attacks, protecting sensitive data well into the future.

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> Where centralized systems operate on the basis of centralized permission, blockchain protocols proceed on the basis of decentralized consensus

- Published: 2022-07-02
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-consensus-attacks/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without...

- Published: 2022-06-22
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-networks/quantum-teleportation/
- Categories: Quantum Networks
Quantum teleportation is a process by which the state of a quantum system (a qubit) can be transmitted from one location to another without physically sending the particle itself . Quantum teleportation has become a foundational method in quantum communication, envisioned as a building block for quantum networks and even quantum computing . In essence, it provides a way to transfer quantum information securely and instantaneously (in principle) across distance – with the crucial caveat that a couple of classical bits must be sent, preserving causality.

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> Query attacks are a type of cybersecurity attack specifically targeting machine learning models. In essence, attackers issue a series of queries...

- Published: 2022-06-19
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/query-attacks-ml/
- Categories: AI Security
Query attacks are a type of cybersecurity attack specifically targeting machine learning models. In essence, attackers issue a series of queries, usually input data fed into the model, to gain insights from the model's output. This could range from understanding the architecture and parameters of the model to uncovering the actual data on which it was trained. The nature of these attacks is often stealthy and surreptitious, designed to mimic legitimate user activity to escape detection.

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> Network attacks are a class of exploits that focus on the isolation and manipulation of individual nodes or groups of nodes.

- Published: 2022-06-18
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-cybersecurity-network-attacks/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> The strengths of smart contracts are also the source of its weaknesses, and will always present opportunities for hackers to exploit.

- Published: 2022-06-08
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/security-blockchain-3-smart-contracts/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> From enabling quantum supercomputers to securing communications and teleporting quantum states, entanglement is the thread weaving...

- Published: 2022-06-08
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-entanglement/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
From enabling quantum supercomputers to securing communications and teleporting quantum states, entanglement is the thread weaving through all of quantum technology. What once struck Einstein as a paradox is today routinely observed and harnessed in labs – the “spooky action” has become a practical tool. We have learned that entanglement is not some esoteric fringe effect; it’s a concrete physical resource, much like energy or information, that can be exploited to do tasks that are otherwise impossible. Its special correlations allow quantum computers to perform massively parallel computations in a single wavefunction, allow cryptographers to detect eavesdroppers with absolute certainty, and allow quantum states to be transmitted without moving a physical carrier.

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> The full story behind the exploit that led to the fraudulent minting of 120,000 wETH and threatened to crash Solana.

- Published: 2022-06-05
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/wormhole-bridge-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> The utopian view of the blockchain as an unhackable alternative to the status quo is a pipedream. Many traditional cyberattacks...

- Published: 2022-06-03
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-security-overview/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Toronto-based startup Xanadu shook the quantum world by announcing that its Borealis photonic quantum computer had achieved...

- Published: 2022-06-03
- Modified: 2025-10-14
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/xanadu-photonic-advantage/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Canada
Toronto-based startup Xanadu shook the quantum world by announcing that its Borealis photonic quantum computer had achieved quantum computational advantage - completing a specialized task exponentially faster than any classical supercomputer could. In a Nature-paper and accompanying demo, Borealis took on the Gaussian boson sampling challenge (a complex photonic calculation) and generated results in only 36 microseconds, a feat estimated to take a classical supercomputer over 9,000 years to replicate. Borealis uses particles of light (photons) passing through a programmable network of fiber loops, beam splitters, and phase shifters. It was able to handle an average of 125 photons (with peaks up to 219) in its computations, far exceeding earlier photonic experiments that used 76-113 photons. Notably, Borealis is the first photonic quantum processor to be fully programmable and to beat classical computing on a benchmark task, and it was made accessible to users via Xanadu’s cloud platform. This achievement, lauded as a “big leap forward” for the industry, put Canada on the short list of nations with devices demonstrating quantum advantage (joining U.S. and Chinese efforts).

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> Differential Privacy presents itself as a mathematical and versatile tool to bridge the gap between data utility and data privacy...

- Published: 2022-06-02
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/differential-privacy-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
Differential Privacy is a privacy paradigm that aims to reconcile the conflicting needs of data utility and individual privacy. Rooted in the mathematical theories of privacy and cryptography, Differential Privacy offers quantifiable privacy guarantees and has garnered substantial attention for its capability to provide statistical insights from data without compromising the privacy of individual entries. This robust mathematical framework incorporates Laplace noise or Gaussian noise algorithms to achieve this delicate balance.

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> The Swiss Federal Council approved a National Quantum Initiative in 2022, committing roughly CHF 80 million to quantum science and technology

- Published: 2022-05-31
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/swiss-quantum-initiative-80/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland
The Swiss Federal Council approved a National Quantum Initiative in 2022, committing roughly CHF 80 million to quantum science and technology over 2023-2028. This marked Switzerland’s first centralized quantum tech program, aiming to unify and amplify efforts across research institutions and industry. The funds will support new R&D projects, professorships, and infrastructure in areas like quantum computing, communications (quantum cryptography), and sensing. It also established a coordination office and expert commission to steer the nationwide effort. The move came as Switzerland found itself excluded from some EU science programs (like Horizon Europe), prompting it to double down on home-grown research support.

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> Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor.

- Published: 2022-05-28
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/transmon-qubits-101/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Transmon qubits are a type of superconducting qubit designed to mitigate charge noise by shunting a Josephson junction with a large capacitor. In other words, a transmon is a superconducting charge qubit that has reduced sensitivity to charge fluctuations . The device consists of a Josephson junction (a nonlinear superconducting element) in parallel with a sizable capacitance, which increases the ratio of Josephson energy to charging energy and thus stabilizes the qubit against charge noise .

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> Cyber-Attack Strategies in the Blockchain Era - A Framework for Categorizing the Emerging Threats to the Crypto Economy

- Published: 2022-05-18
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/blockchain-cyber-attacks-taxonomy/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> On May 4, 2022, the White House issued National Security Memorandum on Promoting United States Leadership in Quantum Computing...

- Published: 2022-05-07
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/white-house-quantum-security-memo/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Government & Defense, United States
---

> Even well-run quantum readiness programs can stumble. Here are some common pitfalls in crypto-agility/PQC efforts and how to avoid them

- Published: 2022-05-06
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/common-failures-quantum-readiness/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Even well-run quantum readiness programs can stumble. Here are some common pitfalls in crypto-agility/PQC efforts and how to avoid them: Treating PQC as a simple library or drop-in swap. Perhaps the biggest mistake is underestimating the ecosystem changes required. Simply implementing a PQC algorithm in code but ignoring the surrounding systems (PKI, certificates, protocols) is a recipe for trouble.

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> Manual, interview-based, surrvey-based, spreadsheet-based cryptographic inventories are insufficient and potentially detrimental...

- Published: 2022-05-05
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/manual-cryptographic-inventories/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Leadership
Relying on asset owners, developers or IT personnel to identify and report in interviews or survey responses every instance of cryptographic usage is not just impractical; it simply does not work...

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> Embarking on a quantum readiness program can be daunting, so it’s helpful to break it into phases with concrete goals.

- Published: 2022-05-04
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/planning-quantum-readiness/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Embarking on a quantum readiness program can be daunting, so it’s helpful to break it into phases with concrete goals. Below is a pragmatic 12-month plan (roughly divided into phases) that a CISO-led team could follow. Based on a medium-size financial services company. This assumes you’re starting from little/no quantum readiness and want to establish momentum quickly:

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> A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication via Micius satellite ...

- Published: 2022-04-29
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/micius-quantum-communications/
- Categories: Industry, Quantum Networks, Research
- Tags: China
A team of Chinese physicists has achieved a landmark advance in quantum communication, successfully teleporting quantum states between two ground stations 1,200 kilometers apart via Micius satellite . The experiment, led by Pan Jianwei of the University of Science and Technology of China, marks the longest-distance quantum teleportation ever demonstrated, shattering previous records that were limited to tens or hundreds of kilometers. The researchers report that six independent quantum states were transmitted with high fidelity, surpassing the best possible performance of any classical communication method .

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> Countries are actively enhancing their capabilities through quantum-related strategic initiatives and regulatory frameworks

- Published: 2022-04-28
- Modified: 2025-09-21
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policies/global-initiatives-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Policies
- Tags: ASEAN, Australia, Canada, China, Europe, Germany, Netherlands, Russia, Singapore, South Korea, United Kingdom, United States
As quantum technologies garner global attention, its economic and national security implications are positioning these set of technologies alongside AI and 5G as pivotal emerging technologies for the future. Governments worldwide are recognizing the strategic importance of quantum technologies, which broadly includes quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing.

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> The true power of Society 5.0 will lie in its degree of integration. As Shinzo Abe said, in Society 5.0 “we must cherish connectedness, above all else.”

- Published: 2022-04-19
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/introducing-society-5-0/
- Categories: Society 5.0
---

> Unfortunately, corporate mission and purpose statements are a magnet for bullshit. They invite the creation of grand, abstract declarations...

- Published: 2022-04-13
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/organizational-bullshit/
- Categories: Leadership
Unfortunately, corporate mission and purpose statements are a magnet for bullshit. They invite the creation of grand, abstract declarations of celestial intent, full of generic and contextually meaningless terms like 'impact,' 'stakeholders', 'people,' 'change', and 'the future.' More often than not, these statements bear little resemblance to the genuine operations of the business, fostering cynicism among employees and customers. But that's not moderating the tendency towards inflationary bullshit. If anything, the trend is getting worse.

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> A workplace with neurodiversity becomes more inclusive to a broader range of individuals, enhancing company reputation and brand image

- Published: 2022-04-12
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/neurodiversity/
- Categories: Leadership
---

> Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals

- Published: 2022-04-05
- Modified: 2025-09-23
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/glossary-quantum-cyber/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Glossary of Quantum Computing, Quantum Networks, Quantum Mechanics, and Quantum Physics Terms for Cybersecurity Professionals.

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> In a single end-to-end use case, literally hundreds of cryptography operations might be executed across dozens of systems...

- Published: 2022-03-24
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/cryptography-telecommunications-5g/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, 5G Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Telecommunications
Modern telecommunications networks rely on multiple layers of cryptography at every step of a call or data session. Understanding the complexity of the process and the amount of cryptography involved is critical for post-quantum migration planning - an initiative some of my advanced telecommunications clients are kicking off these days. And many are widely underestimating how much cryptography is used. From the moment a user’s device connects to the network, through call setup (or SMS delivery), across roaming interfaces, and into backend billing, dozens (hundreds?) of cryptographic mechanisms are at work.

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> We propose a new theoretical framework, Information-Triggered Collapse (ITC), which suggests that quantum wavefunction collapse occurs when...

- Published: 2022-03-06
- Modified: 2026-03-17
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/information-triggered-collapse-itc-wavefunction-reduction/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
We propose a new theoretical framework, Information-Triggered Collapse (ITC), which suggests that quantum wavefunction collapse occurs when the information content or complexity of a quantum system and its environment reaches a critical threshold. This idea is motivated by the growing recognition of information as a fundamental physical quantity, as seen in concepts like Wheeler's "it from bit" , Bekenstein's bound , and Quantum Darwinism . In this paper, we first review the intellectual backdrop that supports an information-based approach to the measurement problem, including key contributions from Landauer, Zurek, Grinbaum, and others. We then outline the formal postulates of ITC, defining an intrinsic informational threshold for quantum state reduction and offering a heuristic motivation for the Born rule from algorithmic information theory. While ITC is inspired by established physics, its core hypothesis—that collapse is triggered by a finite information threshold—remains untested and requires empirical verification. This work aims to stimulate further research into the role of information in quantum mechanics and to explore whether ITC can offer a viable path toward reconciling quantum theory with our classical experience of reality. If confirmed, ITC could provide new insights into the quantum-to-classical transition and have implications for quantum computing and the foundations of physics.

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> Canada has long punched above its weight in advanced technologies - from pioneering work in AI to early breakthroughs in quantum computing...

- Published: 2022-02-28
- Modified: 2025-10-14
- URL: https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cybersecurity-cryptography-canada/
- Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Canada
Canada has long punched above its weight in advanced technologies - from pioneering work in AI to early breakthroughs in quantum computing and blockchain. This innovative spirit extends to the domains of cybersecurity and cryptography, where Canadian researchers and companies have quietly built foundational technologies that secure the digital world. Yet, true to form, Canada often fails to fully commercialize or capitalize on these homegrown innovations, with much of the economic benefit flowing elsewhere. Canada’s contributions to cybersecurity and cryptography run deep - even if they are not always loudly advertised. From the earliest days of the commercial internet to the cutting edge of quantum encryption, Canadians have been pioneers of digital security. Below are some of the most notable innovations developed in Canada

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> Three independent teams simultaneously demonstrate silicon quantum gates exceeding the 99% fault-tolerance threshold...

- Published: 2022-01-26
- Modified: 2026-04-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/silicon-qubits-fault-tolerance-threshold/
- Categories: Research
26 Jan 2022 - For a decade, silicon spin qubits have been quantum computing's most tantalizing "not yet." The pitch was always compelling: qubits built from the same material that powers every smartphone and data centre on earth, manufactured using processes the semiconductor industry has spent half a century perfecting. But the performance gap was real. While superconducting circuits and trapped ions had long since demonstrated the gate fidelities required for quantum error correction, silicon lagged — its two-qubit operations stuck below the critical 99% threshold that the surface code demands. That gap closed this week. Three independent research groups — at RIKEN in Japan, QuTech at TU Delft in the Netherlands, and UNSW in Australia — have simultaneously published results in Nature demonstrating silicon quantum gates that exceed the fault-tolerance threshold. The papers appear back-to-back in the same issue, a coordinated editorial statement about the maturity of a platform that many in the quantum community had relegated to "promising but unproven." The message is unambiguous: silicon is now a first-class contender for fault-tolerant quantum computing. Three Approaches, One Conclusion The three papers take notably different paths to the same destination, which strengthens the result considerably. This is not a single lab getting lucky with one device — it is three separate architectures, on three continents, independently converging on the same conclusion.

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> Zurich-based startup Terra Quantum raised a hefty $60 million in Series A financing to build out its “quantum-as-a-service” platform.

- Published: 2022-01-25
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/swiss-terra-quantum-raise/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland
Zurich-based startup Terra Quantum raised a hefty $60 million in Series A financing to build out its “quantum-as-a-service” platform. Announced in January 2022, this was one of Europe’s largest quantum tech funding rounds at the time. Terra Quantum offers a hybrid quantum computing platform - combining classical computing power with quantum algorithms - and is even developing its own quantum hardware. The round was led by Lakestar and included several large European investors. Terra Quantum’s CEO highlighted milestones like launching a quantum cloud data center (called QMware) and quantum-safe cryptography services, positioning the company as a global quantum player.

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> Many believe total anonymity is possible using privacy enhanced cryptocurrencies. It might not always be the case.

- Published: 2022-01-10
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/tracing-private-cryptocurrencies/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> As the demand for explainable AI systems intensifies, a number of frameworks have emerged to bridge the gap between machine complexity...

- Published: 2021-12-26
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/explainable-ai-frameworks/
- Categories: AI Security
Trust comes through understanding. As AI models grow in complexity, they often resemble a "black box," where their decision-making processes become increasingly opaque. This lack of transparency can be a roadblock, especially when we need to trust and understand these decisions. Explainable AI (XAI) is the approach that aims to make AI's decisions more transparent, interpretable, and understandable. As the demand for transparency in AI systems intensifies, a number of frameworks have emerged to bridge the gap between machine complexity and human interpretability. Some of the leading Explainable AI Frameworks include:

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> In this article we’ll discuss the 5 most common crypto scams and how you can avoid falling victim to them.

- Published: 2021-12-20
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/5-common-crypto-scams/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Just as with anything that has to do with cryptocurrency, you need a reasonable modicum of common sense and security to protect your NFT...

- Published: 2021-12-18
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/nft-scams-threats/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Meta-attacks are sophisticated form of cybersecurity threat, utilizing machine learning algorithms to target and compromise other ML systems

- Published: 2021-12-15
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/meta-attacks-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
Meta-attacks represent a sophisticated form of cybersecurity threat, utilizing machine learning algorithms to target and compromise other machine learning systems. Unlike traditional cyberattacks, which may employ brute-force methods or exploit software vulnerabilities, meta-attacks are more nuanced, leveraging the intrinsic weaknesses in machine learning architectures for a more potent impact. For instance, a meta-attack might use its own machine-learning model to generate exceptionally effective adversarial examples designed to mislead the target system into making errors. By applying machine learning against itself, meta-attacks raise the stakes in the cybersecurity landscape, demanding more advanced defensive strategies to counter these highly adaptive threats.

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> Neurodiversity has been and continues to be an essential factor in the development and success of the human species

- Published: 2021-11-30
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/neurodiversity-evolution/
- Categories: Leadership
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> IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits .

- Published: 2021-11-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/ibm-eagle/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
IBM has announced Eagle, a 127-qubit superconducting quantum processor – the world’s first quantum chip to surpass 100 qubits . Unveiled at the IBM Quantum Summit in late 2021, Eagle marks a major milestone in quantum computing, nearly doubling the qubit count of IBM’s previous 65-qubit “Hummingbird” processor and overtaking the scale of rival devices like Google’s 53-qubit Sycamore . IBM’s researchers herald Eagle as ushering in a “new era” where quantum computers can explore computational problems beyond the reach of classical machines . By breaking the 100-qubit barrier, Eagle moves the industry one step closer to demonstrating quantum advantage – the point at which quantum computers outperform classical supercomputers on useful tasks – a goal IBM believes it can achieve within the next couple of years .

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> As the use of AI expands across various sectors, the need to address its vulnerabilities, such as saliency attacks, becomes increasingly urgent.

- Published: 2021-11-13
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/saliency-attacks-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
"Saliency" refers to the extent to which specific features or dimensions in the input data contribute to the final decision made by the model. Mathematically, this is often quantified by analyzing the gradients of the model's loss function with respect to the input features; these gradients represent how much a small change in each feature would affect the model's output. Some sophisticated techniques like Layer-wise Relevance Propagation (LRP) and Class Activation Mapping (CAM) can also be used to understand feature importance in complex models like convolutional neural networks.

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> Practical preparation for Cryptanalytically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) and Q-Day—when quantum computing will break cryptography

- Published: 2021-11-01
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/practical-steps-quantum/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC, Leadership
- Tags: featured
“How do we actually get started and secure the budget for this, now?”. This comprehensive guide is the answer: a practical, step-by-step playbook for launching and running a quantum security program, updated with the latest lessons on budgeting, cryptographic inventory, risk mitigation workarounds, challenges of post-quantum migration, and achieving crypto-agility in a pragmatic way. We’ll bridge the gap between high-level warnings and on-the-ground execution, giving security teams a clear blueprint to follow. At the highest level, preparing for the post-quantum era isn’t just a technical endeavor - it’s a strategic transformation. It requires executive support, cross-functional coordination, and a phased approach that tackles both immediate wins and long-term resilience. The urgency is driven not only by the specter of a future cryptographically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) - the so-called “Q-Day” - but by pressures that are already here today. Adversaries are actively harvesting encrypted data now in hopes of decrypting it later (the “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (HNDL) risk), meaning the threat is effectively already on your balance sheet. Equally concerning is the integrity threat often overlooked: “Trust Now, Forge Later” (TNFL), where attackers could one day use quantum power to forge digital signatures and certificates that underpin our trust in software updates, identities, and transactions. In short, quantum computing risks aren’t just about privacy and confidentiality; they threaten the very trust fabric of digital systems.

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> A new preprint by Elie Gouzien and Nicolas Sangouard proposes an architectural trade: replace the “millions of qubits in one giant chip” ...

- Published: 2021-10-01
- Modified: 2026-03-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/security-pqc/rsa-2048-cracked-177-days/
- Categories: Quantum Security & PQC
A new preprint by Elie Gouzien and Nicolas Sangouard proposes an architectural trade: replace the “millions of qubits in one giant chip” model with a small quantum processor plus a very large multimode quantum memory. Under optimistic - but clearly stated - fault-tolerance assumptions, the authors estimate that factoring an RSA-2048 integer could be done in ~177 days with ~13,436 physical qubits in the processor, provided the system also includes a massive quantum memory storing ~430 million qubit-modes (organized into ~27.8 million spatial modes and 45 temporal modes) and supports error correction based on 3D gauge color codes. Conceptually, this does not “make RSA fall next year.” It does, however, highlight a potentially important direction for fault-tolerant quantum engineering: shift complexity from individually controlled processing qubits to a memory-centric architecture, at the cost of runtime and extremely ambitious memory requirements. What the paper claims and how it gets there The paper analyzes a hybrid architecture in which quantum information mostly resides in a storage unit (a multimode quantum memory) and is streamed through a smaller 2D processor only when gates or error-correction steps are needed. The memory acts like a “qubit register” whose addresses are indexed by both space and time (spatial and temporal modes).

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> Lattice surgery is a technique that allows multiple encoded qubits (each on its own surface-code patch) to interact by merging and splitting...

- Published: 2021-09-28
- Modified: 2025-10-31
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/lattice-surgery/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum computing promises to solve complex problems far beyond the reach of classical machines, but today's quantum hardware is plagued by short-lived qubits and error rates that make long computations infeasible. Quantum error correction (QEC) is essential to stabilize qubits and enable fault-tolerant quantum computing. One of the leading QEC approaches is the surface code, a topological error-correcting code known for its high error threshold (around 1% in some implementations) and compatibility with 2D hardware layouts. Surface codes “tile” qubits on a 2D grid with local interactions, providing a robust way to detect and correct errors. However, a single surface-code patch encodes only one logical qubit, and naively performing operations between two such encoded qubits can be challenging without breaking the locality and error-protection of the code. This is where lattice surgery comes in. Lattice surgery is a technique that allows multiple encoded qubits (each on its own surface-code patch) to interact by merging and splitting their lattices in a carefully choreographed way. In essence, lattice surgery lets us "stitch together" quantum patches to perform multi-qubit operations while preserving error correction. This concept is crucial for scaling up quantum computers, but it can be difficult to grasp without diving into quantum error correction theory.

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> Embracing neurodiversity in the cybersecurity industry offers significant benefits, including access to a diverse range of skills and perspectives

- Published: 2021-08-22
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/neurodiversity-cybersecurity/
- Categories: Leadership
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> Dutch quantum hardware startup QuantWare has announced the launch of commercially available superconducting quantum processing units...

- Published: 2021-07-27
- Modified: 2026-02-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/quantware-soprano-qpu/
- Categories: Industry, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: Netherlands
Dutch quantum hardware startup QuantWare has announced the launch of commercially available superconducting quantum processing units (QPUs), aiming to make superconducting qubit hardware accessible “off the shelf” and on short lead times. The company says easier access to superconducting processors - an approach used in some of the field’s most mature quantum computing platforms - could help smaller labs and startups accelerate R&D without building their own fabrication capability. QuantWare’s initial offering includes its Soprano QPU, positioned for research and prototyping use cases, with options for customization and delivery as either a packaged unit or bare die. The company also disclosed a €1.15M pre-seed round to expand its team and scale its processors to higher qubit counts, and pointed to early ecosystem work such as supplying a QPU to the multi‑company ImpaQT quantum computer project. QuantWare says pre‑orders are now open.

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> A major corporate development in July 2021 saw German tech group Rohde & Schwarz acquire Zurich Instruments, a Swiss test & measurement

- Published: 2021-07-09
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zurich-instruments-acquired/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland
A major corporate development in July 2021 saw German tech group Rohde & Schwarz acquire Zurich Instruments, a Swiss test & measurement firm known for its quantum control electronics. Zurich Instruments, a spin-off from ETH Zurich, had become a leader in specialized instrumentation for quantum labs (like quantum computer control systems). The deal, completed on July 1, 2021, makes Zurich Instruments a wholly owned subsidiary of Rohde & Schwarz. The parent company stated that integrating the Swiss firm will expand its portfolio of quantum-ready measurement tools and strengthen its position in the burgeoning quantum computing market.

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> "Organizational bullshit" is not an expletive; it is an academically referenced term at the center of a body of legitimate research.

- Published: 2021-07-01
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/organizational-bullshit-hidden/
- Categories: Leadership
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> A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype

- Published: 2021-06-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-2-0/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
A team of Chinese physicists has unveiled Zuchongzhi 2.0, a cutting-edge 66-qubit superconducting quantum computing prototype that pushes the frontiers of computational power. Announced by the CAS Center for Excellence in Quantum Information, this new quantum machine builds on its predecessor (Zuchongzhi 1.0) with more qubits and higher fidelity, achieving a milestone known as quantum computational advantage (or “quantum supremacy”) in a programmable device . In a benchmark test, Zuchongzhi 2.0 solved a problem in just over an hour that researchers estimate would take the world’s fastest supercomputer at least eight years to crack .

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> Batch exploration attacks are a class of cyber attacks where adversaries systematically query or probe streamed machine learning models...

- Published: 2021-05-31
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/batch-exploration-attacks/
- Categories: AI Security
Batch exploration attacks are a class of cyber attacks where adversaries systematically query or probe streamed machine learning models to expose vulnerabilities, glean sensitive information, or decipher the underlying structure and parameters of the models. The motivation behind such attacks often stems from a desire to exploit vulnerabilities in streamed data models for unauthorized access, information extraction, or model manipulation, given the wealth of real-time and dynamic data these models process. The ramifications of successful attacks can be severe, ranging from loss of sensitive and proprietary information and erosion of user trust to substantial financial repercussions.

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> Next-generation QKD protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities...

- Published: 2021-05-31
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/next-generation-qkd/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Networks
Traditional QKD implementations have demonstrated provably secure key exchange, but they come with practical limitations. To address these limitations, researchers have developed next-generation QKD protocols. These advanced protocols improve security by reducing trust assumptions and mitigating device vulnerabilities, and they enhance performance (key rate, distance) through novel techniques. The article includes a high-level overview of the most notable next-gen QKD protocols.

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> In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting...

- Published: 2021-05-30
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/zuchongzhi-1/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
In May 2021, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) unveiled Zuchongzhi 1.0, a 62-qubit programmable superconducting quantum computer that set a new benchmark in the quantum computing race. Named after a 5th-century Chinese mathematician, Zuchongzhi 1.0 contains the largest number of superconducting qubits ever assembled in a single processor so far .

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> “Securing Society 5.0” addresses the largely unexamined cybersecurity threats of cyber-physical ubiquity in Society 5.0

- Published: 2021-05-17
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/securing-society-5-introduction/
- Categories: Society 5.0, 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) publishes a report "Post-Quantum Cryptography: Current State and Quantum Mitigation"

- Published: 2021-05-15
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/enisa-pqc-state/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Quantum Security & PQC
- Tags: Europe
---

> May 2021 - ETH Zurich and the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) opened a new joint Quantum Computing Hub dedicated to developing

- Published: 2021-05-11
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/eth-zurich-psi-quantum-hub/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland
May 2021 - ETH Zurich and the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) opened a new joint Quantum Computing Hub dedicated to developing next-generation quantum computers. Backed by CHF 32 million from ETH, the center in canton Aargau brings together about 30 researchers under one roof. Uniquely, it houses two leading quantum hardware approaches side by side: superconducting circuits and trapped-ion technologies. By exploring both ion-trap and superconducting qubit systems in the same lab, Swiss researchers hope to spur synergies in scaling to larger qubit counts and improving reliability.

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> Paper authors claim that their construction's spacetime volume for factoring RSA-2048 integers is a hundredfold less than earlier estimates

- Published: 2021-04-16
- Modified: 2026-03-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-research/breaking-rsa-2048-20m/
- Categories: Research, Quantum Security & PQC
---

> One often overlooked yet highly promising approach to quantum readiness is tokenization which can reduce dependence on quantum-vulnerable...

- Published: 2021-04-16
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/tokenization-quantum-readiness/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
As the quantum era approaches, organizations face the daunting task of protecting their sensitive data from the looming threat of quantum computers. These powerful machines have the potential to render traditional cryptographic methods obsolete, making it imperative to explore innovative strategies for quantum readiness. One often overlooked yet highly promising approach is tokenization.

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> Learn practical steps to protect every device in your telecommunications organization from looming quantum computing threats.

- Published: 2021-04-13
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-telecom/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
Since the early 2000s, the field of quantum computing has seen significant advancements, both in technological development and in commercialization efforts. The experimental demonstration of Shor's algorithm in 2001 proved to be one of the key catalyzing events, spurring increased interest and investment from both the public and private sectors.

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> Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its subset Quantum Annealing, are another models for quantum computation focused on optimization...

- Published: 2021-04-03
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/adiabatic-quantum-cyber/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Computing
Adiabatic Quantum Computing (AQC), and its variant Quantum Annealing, are another model for quantum computation. It's a specialized subset of quantum computing focused on solving optimization problems by finding the minimum (or maximum) of a given function over a set of possible solutions. For problems that can be presented as optimization problems, such as 3-SAT problem, quantum database search problem, and yes, the factoring problem we are worried about, quantum annealers have shown great potential in solving them in a way that classical computers struggle with.

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> Quantum computers face a unique challenge in moving quantum information between qubits. Unlike classical bits that can be shuttled freely...

- Published: 2021-04-02
- Modified: 2025-11-02
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/routing-quantum-information/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum computers face a unique challenge in moving quantum information between qubits. Unlike classical bits that can be shuttled freely along wires, qubits cannot be arbitrarily copied or moved due to the no-cloning theorem. To route a qubit’s state from one location to another, one must use quantum operations that effectively reposition the state without making a separate copy. This is especially critical in architectures like superconducting qubits, where each qubit typically interacts only with a few neighbors (limited connectivity). In such systems, implementing an algorithm often requires moving qubit states around so that the right qubits can interact.

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> Quantum error correction (QEC) is indispensable for building large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computers. Even today’s best qubits...

- Published: 2021-03-09
- Modified: 2025-10-30
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/surface-code-qec/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum error correction (QEC) is indispensable for building large-scale fault-tolerant quantum computers. Even today’s best qubits suffer error rates that would quickly corrupt any long calculation if left uncorrected. The principle of QEC is to encode a single logical qubit into multiple physical qubits such that errors can be detected and fixed without measuring the actual quantum data. Among many QEC codes, the surface code has emerged as one of the leading approaches in both theory and experiment. Origins and Foundations of the Surface Code The surface code’s origins trace back to the late 1990s in the work of Alexei Kitaev, who introduced a topological error-correcting code known as the toric code. Kitaev’s idea was inspired by concepts of topology and anyons in physics: qubits are arranged on a two-dimensional lattice and the logical information is stored non-locally, in global “topological” features of the system. In the toric code (so named because the lattice has periodic boundaries forming a torus), quantum information is protected by global constraints - essentially, errors must form continuous loops on the torus to cause a logical failure. This was a radically new approach, suggesting that quantum states could be immune to small local disturbances by delocalizing the information across a surface.

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> The article compares the different 5G Core Architecture of the major 5G Vendors - Huawei, Ericsson, Nokia, ZTE, Cisco, Affirmed, Mavenir

- Published: 2021-02-28
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/comparison-5g-core/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Model inversion attacks present a complex challenge to the security and ethical deployment of AI systems. While the attacks...

- Published: 2021-02-11
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/model-inversion/
- Categories: AI Security
A model inversion attack aims to reverse-engineer a target machine learning model to infer sensitive information about its training data. Specifically, these attacks are designed to exploit the model's internal representations and decision boundaries to reverse-engineer and subsequently reveal sensitive attributes of the training data. Take, for example, a machine learning model that leverages a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) architecture to conduct sentiment analysis on encrypted messages. An attacker utilizing model inversion techniques can strategically query the model and, by dissecting the SoftMax output probabilities or even hidden layer activations, approximate the semantic and syntactic structures used in the training set.

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> The pervasiveness of data spoofing poses a significant threat to the reliability and security of AI systems across various sectors...

- Published: 2021-02-11
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/data-spoofing-ai/
- Categories: AI Security
Data spoofing is the intentional manipulation, fabrication, or misrepresentation of data with the aim of deceiving systems into making incorrect decisions or assessments. While it is often associated with IP address spoofing in network security, the concept extends into various domains and types of data, including, but not limited to, geolocation data, sensor readings, and even labels in machine learning datasets. In the realm of cybersecurity, the most commonly spoofed types of data include network packets, file hashes, digital signatures, and user credentials. The techniques used for data spoofing are varied and often sophisticated,

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> KuCoin in response to a $285M hack in 2020 set the standard for how to react to crypto hacks, even on the largest scale.

- Published: 2021-02-05
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/kucoin-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
---

> Open RAN could offer a route to tighter operator control, improved accountability and stronger security of the 5G ecosystem.

- Published: 2021-01-20
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-lexicon/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Two terms have emerged as the darlings of headlines and conference keynotes: quantum supremacy and quantum advantage.

- Published: 2020-12-30
- Modified: 2025-10-16
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-supremacy-advantage/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
In the ever-accelerating world of quantum computing, two terms have emerged as the darlings of headlines and conference keynotes: quantum supremacy and quantum advantage. If you've followed the news, you might think they're interchangeable buzzwords celebrating the dawn of a new computing era. But dig a little deeper, and you'll uncover a subtle yet spirited debate among the field's top minds - one that's as much about language and perception as it is about physics. Just last fall, in October 2019, Google made waves by announcing it had achieved "quantum supremacy" with its Sycamore processor, a 53-qubit behemoth that reportedly solved a specific problem in 200 seconds - a feat that would take the world's fastest supercomputer 10,000 years. The claim, detailed in a paper published in Nature, sparked jubilation, skepticism, and, yes, a terminological tussle that's still rippling through the community in early 2020. "Quantum supremacy using a programmable superconducting processor". But is "supremacy" the right word? Or should we pivot to "advantage" for a more humble, practical tone?

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> This proposal outlines a composite, vendor‑neutral “CRQC Readiness” indicator. It intentionally avoids one‑number vanity metrics...

- Published: 2020-12-25
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/crqc-readiness-index/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
This proposal outlines a composite, vendor‑neutral “CRQC Readiness” indicator. It intentionally avoids one‑number vanity metrics (like only counting qubits) and instead triangulates from three ingredients that actually matter for breaking today’s crypto: usable (logical) qubits, error‑tolerant algorithm depth, and sustained error‑corrected operations per second.

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> FIPS 140 (Federal Information Processing Standard 140) is a U.S. government computer security standard that specifies security requirements...

- Published: 2020-12-24
- Modified: 2025-10-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/understanding-fips-140/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
FIPS 140 (Federal Information Processing Standard 140) is a U.S. government computer security standard that specifies security requirements for cryptographic modules - the hardware or software components that perform encryption and other cryptographic functions. In simpler terms, FIPS 140 sets the ground rules for how encryption engines (in everything from software libraries to hardware appliances) must be built and tested to be considered secure. The standard was developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the 1990s, with successive versions over the years: FIPS 140-1 was introduced in 1995, FIPS 140-2 in 2001, and the latest FIPS 140-3 in 2019v. Each iteration has built upon the last to address new security challenges and technologies.

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> A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum chip

- Published: 2020-12-08
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/china-jiuzhang-quantum/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: China
A team of Chinese scientists has announced a breakthrough in quantum computing with the development of Jiuzhang, a photonic quantum processor that achieved a major computational milestone. In experiments reported on December 3, 2020, Jiuzhang completed in 200 seconds a mathematical problem that researchers estimate would take a classical supercomputer on the order of 2.5 billion years to solve .

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> Ironically, the greater freedom that defines open RAN could offer a route to tighter operator control and stronger security.

- Published: 2020-11-27
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/open-ran-future-5g-security/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> 5G specification includes several functionalities especially around the 5G New Radio (NR) that can be mapped to the TSN requirements

- Published: 2020-10-04
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-tsn-industrial-automation/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Aerospace & Automotive, Telecommunications
---

> Vancouver-area company D-Wave Systems - the world’s first commercial quantum computing firm - launched its Advantage quantum annealer...

- Published: 2020-10-01
- Modified: 2025-10-14
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/d-wave-5000-qubit/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Canada
Vancouver-area company D-Wave Systems - the world’s first commercial quantum computing firm - launched its Advantage quantum annealer, boasting over 5,000 qubits and a radically expanded 15-way qubit connectivity. This machine marked a leap from its previous 2,000-qubit system and demonstrated that D-Wave’s unique quantum annealing architecture can scale in qubit count and complexity. CEO Alan Baratz highlighted that despite packing twice the qubits and more than five times the devices on the chip, the new processor maintained similar speed and operating temperatures as before - defying skeptics who long claimed D-Wave’s tech “wouldn’t scale”. The Advantage system also came with updates to D-Wave’s hybrid solvers, enabling businesses and researchers to tackle larger optimization problems by blending quantum and classical computing power.

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> In return for greater convenience brought by 5G we are increasingly losing the control over the related cyber risks.

- Published: 2020-09-27
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/cybersecurity-safety-5g-smart-everything/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> 5G architecture is an evolution of current 4G architectures but based on a Service-Based Architecture (SBA).

- Published: 2020-08-16
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-core-sba-components-architecture/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Targeted disinformation poses a significant threat to societal trust, democratic processes, and individual well-being. The use of AI in disinformation...

- Published: 2020-08-07
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/targeted-disinformation/
- Categories: AI Security
Targeted disinformation poses a significant threat to societal trust, democratic processes, and individual well-being. The use of AI in these disinformation campaigns enhances their precision, persuasiveness, and impact, making them more dangerous than ever before. By understanding the mechanisms of targeted disinformation and implementing comprehensive strategies to combat it, society can better protect itself against these sophisticated threats.

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> Smart home / smart building IoT wireless conectivity options and their cyberseucrity strengths and weaknesses

- Published: 2020-07-28
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/smart-building-smart-home-connectivity-cybersecurity/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> 3GPP today finalized Release 16 - its second set of specifications for 5G New Radio (NR) technology. Let's review the 3GPP process.

- Published: 2020-07-03
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-3gpp-releases-15-16-17/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Brief history of quantum computing from quantum mechanics theory to practical implementations of quantum computers

- Published: 2020-06-16
- Modified: 2025-10-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/history-quantum-computing/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Since the early 2000s, the field of quantum computing has seen significant advancements, both in technological development and in commercialization efforts. The experimental demonstration of Shor's algorithm in 2001 proved to be one of the key catalyzing events, spurring increased interest and investment from both the public and private sectors.

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> Fear sells - or so some vendors seem to think. For decades, a steady drumbeat of ominous warnings has proclaimed...

- Published: 2020-06-06
- Modified: 2025-10-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-fear-mongering/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Fear sells - or so some vendors seem to think. For decades, a steady drumbeat of ominous warnings has proclaimed that a cryptography-breaking quantum computer is just around the corner. At security conferences and in sales pitches, I’ve had vendors lean in and whisper dramatic claims: “A friend at Fort Meade says quantum computing is farther along than we think.” Not recently - that was in 2001! They name-drop the NSA or hint at secret intelligence, hoping to scare organizations into panic-buying their “quantum-safe” solutions. It’s the oldest trick in the book, invoking a boogeyman to push product. But when it comes to quantum threats, this kind of fear-mongering doesn’t help anyone - not customers, not the industry, and not even the vendors themselves. In fact, it’s doing more harm than good.

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> Does ERNW positive review of Huawei’s UDG source code quality mean that Huawei 5G is secure and reliable? No, no it doesn't.

- Published: 2020-05-18
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/huawei-ernw-5g-source-code/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: China, Telecommunications
---

> Only proactive movement will do if telcos are to avoid losing the battle for edge computing. This will require a new way of doing business...

- Published: 2020-04-30
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/telcos-edge-computing-battle/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> If 5G's implementation was controversial before, COVID-19 will probably make it a matter of far wider debate. And so it should.

- Published: 2020-04-19
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/covid-19-5g/
- Categories: 5G Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications...

- Published: 2020-04-14
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/entanglement-based-qkd/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Networks
While prepare-and-measure QKD currently leads the market due to simplicity and higher key rates, entanglement-based QKD protocols like E91 and BBM92 are at the heart of next-generation quantum communications. Ongoing improvements in photonic technology are steadily closing the gap in performance. The additional security guarantees (e.g., tolerance of untrusted devices) and network capabilities (multi-user, untrusted relay) provided by entanglement make it a very attractive approach for future large-scale quantum-secure networks.

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> Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics...

- Published: 2020-04-13
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/qkd-bb84/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Networks
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) represents a radical advancement in secure communication, utilizing principles from quantum mechanics to distribute cryptographic keys with guaranteed security.Unlike classical encryption, whose security often relies on the computational difficulty of certain mathematical problems, QKD's security is based on the laws of physics, which are, as far as we know, unbreakable.

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> APIs offer a powerful means for collecting data securely and efficiently for your machine-learning workflows. However, proper usage requires...

- Published: 2020-04-12
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/twitter-api-ml/
- Categories: AI Security
While APIs serve as secure data conduits, they are not impervious to cyber threats. Vulnerabilities can range from unauthorized data access and leakage to more severe threats like remote code execution attacks. Therefore, it's crucial to integrate a robust security architecture that involves multiple layers of protection. Transport Layer Security (TLS) should be implemented to ensure data confidentiality and integrity during transmission. On the authentication front, OAuth 2.0 offers a secure and flexible framework for token-based authentication. Additionally, API keys should never be hardcoded into source repositories but should be managed through environment variables or secure key vaults. Other security practices such as network-level firewall configurations, IP whitelisting, and rate-limiting should be employed to defend against DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attacks and unauthorized data scraping.

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> Virtualization is a profound step towards the liberation of 5G’s genuine capacity. Unfortunately, this also means more open to attack.

- Published: 2020-03-21
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/virtualization-key-5g/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations...

- Published: 2020-03-01
- Modified: 2025-11-01
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/cnot-gate-quantum/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
The CNOT gate is to quantum circuits what the XOR gate is to classical circuits: a basic building block for complex operations. By learning how the CNOT gate works and why it matters, cybersecurity experts can better appreciate how quantum computers process information, how they might break cryptography, and how they enable new secure protocols. This article provides an accessible yet rigorous overview of the CNOT gate, tailored for tech-savvy professionals in security.

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> The perpetual real-time connectivity requirements of Society 5.0 are almost incomprehensible. This will not be possible without 5G.

- Published: 2020-02-17
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-society5-human-evolution/
- Categories: 5G Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> The Swiss Science Council released a landmark white paper on quantum technologies, outlining a national strategy to capitalize on Switzerland’s

- Published: 2020-02-01
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/switzerland-national-quantum-strategy/
- Categories: Industry
- Tags: Switzerland
The Swiss Science Council released a landmark white paper on quantum technologies, outlining a national strategy to capitalize on Switzerland’s strengths in quantum computing, communication, sensing, and cryptography. This roadmap calls for greater coordination and investment across government, academia, and industry to ensure the country remains at the forefront of the “second quantum revolution.” Key focus areas include scaling up research funding, creating education programs, and investing in infrastructure like quantum labs and networks. It marks the first comprehensive plan to boost Swiss quantum innovation on a national level.

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> Cybersecurity cannot be an afterthought - it needs to be built into 5G from the ground up or we risk too much exposure

- Published: 2020-01-19
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/opportunity-cybersecurity-age-5g/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit.

- Published: 2019-12-30
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/rcs-benchmark/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
At its core, Random Circuit Sampling (RCS) is a way to test how well a quantum computer can generate the output of a complex quantum circuit. Compare the results to what an ideal quantum computer should produce. If the quantum computer’s output closely matches the theoretical expectations, it demonstrates that the system is performing quantum operations correctly.

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> Whether they are prepared for it or not, whether they embrace it or not, 5G will disrupt local telecom companies in Canada.

- Published: 2019-11-22
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/key-to-success-in-canadas-5g/
- Categories: 5G Security, Leadership, Society 5.0
- Tags: Canada, Telecommunications
---

> Model stealing represents a grave threat to industries across the board, from healthcare and finance to retail and gaming...

- Published: 2019-11-13
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-model-stealing/
- Categories: AI Security
Model stealing, also known as model extraction, is the practice of reverse engineering a machine learning model owned by a third party without explicit authorization. Attackers don't need direct access to the model's parameters or training data to accomplish this. Instead, they often interact with the model via its API or any public interface, making queries (i.e., sending input data) and receiving predictions (i.e., output data). By systematically making numerous queries and meticulously studying the outputs, attackers can build a new model that closely approximates the target model's behavior.

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> The full story behind the first major crypto hack, the $460M MtGox Hack of 2014, and how much really was lost.

- Published: 2019-11-05
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/mtgox-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
---

> Along with exciting new capabilities that will serve humanity in general, quantum computing also ushers in an era of expanded cyber risks.

- Published: 2019-11-04
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-computing-security/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
The secret sauce of quantum computing, which even Einstein called "spooky," is the ability to generate and manipulate quantum bits of data or qubits. Certain computational tasks can be executed exponentially faster on a quantum processor using qubits, than on a classical computer with 1s and 0s. A qubit can attain a third state of superimposition of 1s and 0s simultaneously, encode data into quantum mechanical properties by "entangling" pairs of qubits, manipulate that data and perform huge complex calculations very quickly.

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> In late 2019, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) quietly reached a milestone in cybersecurity: it approved a new standard...

- Published: 2019-11-02
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/itu-y-3800-publication/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Quantum Networks
- Tags: Telecommunications
In late 2019, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) quietly reached a milestone in cybersecurity: it approved a new standard that could redefine how we secure data in the coming quantum era. The standard, known as ITU-T Recommendation Y.3800, is an “Overview on networks supporting Quantum Key Distribution” - essentially a blueprint for building networks that use the strange laws of quantum physics to protect encryption keys. It’s a big step toward quantum-safe communication, ensuring that as quantum computers loom on the horizon, our sensitive data can stay safe . Just days after its release, here’s an in-depth look at what Y.3800 is and why it matters.

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> Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy”

- Published: 2019-10-26
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/industry-news/google-sycamore/
- Categories: Industry, Research, Systems & Engineering
- Tags: United States
Google announced that its 53-qubit quantum processor, Sycamore, has achieved a long-anticipated milestone known as “quantum supremacy.” In a paper published in Nature, the Google AI Quantum team reported that Sycamore performed a specific computation in approximately 200 seconds – a task they estimated would take the world’s fastest classical supercomputer at least 10,000 years to complete .

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> IIoT can affect their surroundings. They also have the potential to be hacked. Those that control the cyber can then control the physical.

- Published: 2019-10-17
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/trust-iiot-deadly-combination/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> The shift to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention...

- Published: 2019-10-14
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/pqc-challenges/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
The shift to post-quantum cryptography is not a distant problem but an imminent challenge that requires immediate attention. The quantum threat affects all forms of computing—whether it’s enterprise IT, IoT devices, or personal electronics. Transitioning to quantum-resistant algorithms is a complex, resource-intensive task that demands coordination across the supply chain, extensive security audits, and careful management of performance and cost issues.

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> A coordinated move to build cybersecurity into 5G networks from the ground up is critical if we are to deliver on 5G promises

- Published: 2019-10-08
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-quantum-cyber-threats/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Canada could get ahead in the global 5G innovation race not by being the first to 5G, but by being the first to roll out 5G in the right way

- Published: 2019-10-05
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/5g-innovation-zones-canada-ai/
- Categories: Society 5.0, 5G Security, AI Security
- Tags: Canada, Telecommunications
---

> The rollout of 5G is one of the most anticipated events in humanity’s technological history. But what about the 5G health concerns?

- Published: 2019-10-01
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-health-risks/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> If Canada wants to succeed with its AI-focused innovation agenda, it should also be at the forefront of 5G and AI joint development

- Published: 2019-09-21
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/getting-smart-5g-ai-canada/
- Categories: 5G Security, AI Security, Leadership, Society 5.0
- Tags: Canada, Telecommunications
---

> Schrödinger’s equation is essentially the master instruction set for quantum systems – the quantum-world analogue of Newton’s famous F=ma...

- Published: 2019-09-19
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/schrodingers-equation/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Schrödinger’s equation is essentially the master instruction set for quantum systems – the quantum-world analogue of Newton’s famous F=ma in classical physics. In short, Schrödinger’s equation is to quantum mechanics what Newton’s second law is to classical mechanics: a fundamental law of motion describing how a physical system will change over time. It was formulated in 1925–26 by Erwin Schrödinger, who built on the idea that particles like electrons could behave as waves. By solving this equation, Schrödinger successfully predicted the allowed energy levels (the “bound states”) of the hydrogen atom, matching experimental observations of atomic spectra. This was a stunning validation – much like how Newton’s laws predict planetary orbits, Schrödinger’s equation accurately predicted the quantized orbits of electrons in atoms.

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> NFC security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.

- Published: 2019-09-05
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/nfc-security-intro/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> RFID security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.

- Published: 2019-08-28
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/rfid-security-intro/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> AI and 5G are poised to become one of the most impactful partnerships in history, but they could spell trouble

- Published: 2019-08-26
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-5g-core-security/
- Categories: AI Security, 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Wi-Fi security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.

- Published: 2019-08-21
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/wifi-security-intro/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Bluetooth security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.

- Published: 2019-08-17
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/bluetooth-security-intro/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Zigbee is wireless PAN (Personal Area Network) technology developed to support automation, machine-to-machine communication...

- Published: 2019-08-10
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/zigbee-security-overview/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> LoRaWAN security issues must be analyzed from the very beginning of network design and should be assessed individually for each use case.

- Published: 2019-08-07
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/iot-lorawan-security/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Mosca’s Theorem is a risk framework formulated to help organizations gauge how urgent their post-quantum preparations should be.

- Published: 2019-07-18
- Modified: 2026-04-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/moscas-theorem/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Getting Started With Quantum Security & PQC
Mosca’s Theorem is a risk framework formulated to help organizations gauge how urgent their post-quantum preparations should be. It is often summarized by the inequality X + Y > Q, where: X = the length of time your data must remain secure (the required confidentiality lifespan of the information). Y = the time required to migrate or upgrade your cryptographic systems to be quantum-safe (your migration timeline). Q = the expected time until quantum attackers can break today’s encryption (the “Z”ero-hour for current cryptography).

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> At the speed AI is developing, it won’t be long before we see attacks on a mass scale. We need to prepare now for risks of AI

- Published: 2019-05-04
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-risks/
- Categories: AI Security
Because it demands so much manpower, cybersecurity has already benefited from AI and automation to improve threat prevention, detection and response. Preventing spam and identifying malware are already common examples. However, AI is also being used – and will be used more and more – by cybercriminals to circumvent cyberdefenses and bypass security algorithms. AI-driven cyberattacks have the potential to be faster, wider spread and less costly to implement. They can be scaled up in ways that have not been possible in even the most well-coordinated hacking campaigns. These attacks evolve in real time, achieving high impact rates.

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> Quantum computers are often described with a mind-bending metaphor: they explore multiple paths simultaneously to find an answer...

- Published: 2019-05-03
- Modified: 2025-10-31
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-many-paths-at-once/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum computers are often described with a mind-bending metaphor: they explore multiple paths simultaneously to find an answer. You might have heard people excitedly say that a quantum computer can "try all solutions at once" thanks to quantum magic. This popular explanation isn’t exactly wrong - it’s a handy metaphor to get started - but it doesn’t tell the full story. In reality, quantum computers are not just massively parallel classical machines, and the truth about how they work is even more fascinating. The “Multiple Paths at Once” Metaphor (and Why It Arises) Many beginners imagine a quantum computer as akin to having an exponential number of classical processors working in parallel. For example, if you’re in a maze, a classical computer would try each path one by one (or use many processors to try many paths at the same time). A quantum computer, by contrast, is often said to act “as if it has a bird’s-eye view of the maze,” seemingly checking all paths simultaneously. This intuitive picture comes from the idea of quantum superposition, where quantum bits (qubits) can represent multiple states at the same time. If each qubit can be both 0 and 1 simultaneously, then with enough qubits you could encode all possible paths or solutions as a superposition of states. It feels like having countless parallel computations happening at once.

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> 5G and AI are poised to become one of the most impactful partnerships in human history, but they could spell trouble.

- Published: 2019-05-03
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/5g-ai-intertwined/
- Categories: AI Security, 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> As 5G is instated it will quickly become the infrastructure upon which all other infrastructures depend – the most critical of all

- Published: 2019-04-09
- Modified: 2025-10-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-critical-infrastructure/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> To recoup major investment in 5G networks, telcos will have to approach the market in a completely different way

- Published: 2019-04-08
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/telcos-5g-ecosystem/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> In the late 1990s, organizations worldwide poured time and money into exorcising the “millennium bug.” Y2K remediation was a global scramble.

- Published: 2019-04-04
- Modified: 2026-04-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/q-day/q-day-y2q-y2k/
- Categories: Q-Day, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day Prediction
In the late 1990s, organizations worldwide poured time and money into exorcising the “millennium bug.” Y2K remediation was a global scramble. That massive effort succeeded: when January 1, 2000 hit, planes didn’t fall from the sky and power grids stayed lit. Ever since, Y2K has been held up as both a model of proactive risk management and, paradoxically, a punchline about overhyped tech doomsaying. Today, as boards hear warnings about cryptography-shattering quantum computers, the comparison to Y2K is increasingly cropping up. It’s easy to see why: preparing for “Q-Day”, the moment a quantum computer can crack RSA/ECC encryption, also involves updating or replacing countless systems in time to avoid a digital disaster. However, analogies can be double-edged. While the Y2K saga offers valuable lessons in mobilization and urgency, it also tempts us with false comfort. Many recall Y2K as the crisis that never materialized, which can breed a dangerous “nothing will happen” mindset about Q-Day.

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> I'll try and break down the concepts of quantum computing, explore why it's better than classical computing for certain tasks, and discuss...

- Published: 2019-04-04
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-introduction/
- Categories: Quantum Computing, Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security, Q-Day
Quantum computing holds the potential to revolutionize fields where classical computers struggle, particularly in areas involving complex quantum systems, large-scale optimization, and cryptography. The power of quantum computing lies in its ability to leverage the principles of quantum mechanics—superposition and entanglement—to perform certain types of calculations much more efficiently than classical computers.

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> If 5G really starts driving the 4th Industrial Revolution, every government should be worried about being left behind.

- Published: 2019-04-01
- Modified: 2025-09-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/geopolitics-of-5g-massive-critical-iot/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: China, Telecommunications, United States
---

> Each stakeholder in the massive global transition to 5G should create their own checklist of threshold public policy and regulatory concerns

- Published: 2019-03-26
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/policy-and-regulatory-checklist-5g/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> Network slicing for 5G era is still shaping up, with many concerns and issues still remaining unsolved. Cybersecurity for one

- Published: 2019-03-25
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-network-slicing-primer/
- Categories: 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> 5G will enable new use cases with huge potential benefits. But it will also create new 5G security vulnerabilities

- Published: 2019-03-23
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/5g-security/5g-security-privacy-challenges/
- Categories: 5G Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> With so many critical services enmeshed with smart cities, the attack surface is enormous. Securing smart city and 5G systems is essentials

- Published: 2019-03-20
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-privacy-smart-cities-5g/
- Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security, Society 5.0
---

> If 5G connectivity extends to even most of the industrialized world, it will be truly transformative to the global economy and societies

- Published: 2019-03-16
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/5g-transform-global-economy-societies/
- Categories: Society 5.0, 5G Security
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> With disinformation likely to increase, supported by AI, it will become harder to discern truth from disinformation.

- Published: 2019-03-15
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-disinformation/
- Categories: AI Security
Recent events have confirmed that the cyber realm can be used to disrupt democracies as surely as it can destabilize dictatorships. Weaponization of information and malicious dissemination through social media pushes citizens into polarized echo chambers and pull at the social fabric of a country. Present technologies enhanced by current and upcoming Artificial Intelligence (AI) capabilities, could greatly exacerbate disinformation and other cyber threats to democracy.

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> In the early 1980s, the legendary physicist Richard Feynman imagined a new kind of computer - one that operates on the weird rules...

- Published: 2019-03-05
- Modified: 2025-10-24
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/feynman-quantum-history/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
In the early 1980s, the legendary physicist Richard Feynman imagined a new kind of computer - one that operates on the weird rules of quantum mechanics rather than classical physics. Frustrated by how clumsy ordinary computers were at simulating the subatomic world, Feynman famously declared: “Nature isn’t classical, dammit, and if you want to make a simulation of nature, you’d better make it quantum mechanical”. In other words, the only way to truly capture the bizarre behavior of particles (like electrons doing dances that classical bits can’t imitate) was to build a computer that itself spoke nature’s quantum language. This bold idea, sparked in a 1981 lecture at MIT, planted the seeds for what we now call quantum computing.

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> We must recognize the complex issues surrounding the lifecycle of smart city data, especially when these data are aggregated or open to abuse

- Published: 2019-03-01
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/privacy-smart-cities-iot/
- Categories: Society 5.0
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> Quantum parallelism is often described in almost mystical terms – exponential computations happening in parallel in the multiverse! – but...

- Published: 2019-02-05
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-parallelism/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
Quantum parallelism is often described in almost mystical terms – exponential computations happening in parallel in the multiverse! – but as we’ve explored, it boils down to the concrete physics of superposition and interference. A quantum computer superposes many states and processes them together, leveraging the wave-like nature of quantum amplitudes to sift out the answer we want. It’s like having an insanely massive parallel computer, but one that only yields useful output if programmed in just the right way. This duality is what makes quantum computing both exciting and challenging.

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> Around $170M worth of cryptocurrency was allegedly stolen from an obscure Italian crypto exchange called BitGrail in 2018...

- Published: 2019-01-22
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/crypto-security/bitgrail-hack/
- Categories: Crypto Security
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> Unlike classical methods, QRNG leverages the inherent unpredictability of quantum mechanics. At the quantum level, particles such as photons...

- Published: 2019-01-17
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/quantum-random-number-generation-qrng/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Cryptographic systems rely on the unpredictability and randomness of numbers to secure data. In cryptography, the strength of encryption keys depends on their unpredictability. Unpredictable and truly random numbers—those that remain secure even against extensive computational resources and are completely unknown to adversaries—are among the most essential elements in cryptography and cybersecurity.

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> Seven technologies are poised for explosive growth in 2019. And what they can accomplish is not even the most significant disruption..

- Published: 2019-01-01
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/society-5/technology-trends-for-2019/
- Categories: Society 5.0
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> On December 21, 2018, the United States solidified its commitment to quantum technology by enacting the National Quantum Initiative Act

- Published: 2018-12-29
- Modified: 2026-02-13
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/us-quantum-initiative-act/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Industry
- Tags: Government & Defense, United States
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> Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence.

- Published: 2018-12-14
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-ai/quantum-artificial-intelligence-qai/
- Categories: Quantum AI
Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI) represents an emerging frontier where quantum computing meets artificial intelligence. This interdisciplinary field explores how quantum algorithms can enhance, accelerate, and expand the capabilities of conventional AI systems. Quantum computing's potential to process complex datasets exponentially faster than classical computers could revolutionize areas like machine learning, optimization, and pattern recognition.

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> The iconic look of superconducting quantum computers' "chandelier" causes lots of questions and discussions. For a simple introduction see...

- Published: 2018-12-01
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computer-weird/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
The intricate giant chandelier of copper tubes, wires, and shielding often leaves people puzzled and curious. This image of a quantum computer is quite striking and unlike any classical computer we've seen before. This unique appearance is not just for show; it's a direct result of the specific technological requirements needed to operate quantum computers, particularly those based on superconducting qubits.

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> While quantum computing is still in its early stages, with practical and widespread use yet to be realized, the potential it holds is transformative...

- Published: 2018-11-30
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-computing-use-cases/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
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> Traditional security protocols must be rethought to catch up to current and emergent technologies like 5G and related cyber-kinetic risks

- Published: 2018-11-16
- Modified: 2025-09-11
- URL: https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-risks-iot-5g/
- Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security, 5G Security, Society 5.0
- Tags: Telecommunications
---

> On October 29, 2018, the European Commission officially kicked off its ambitious Quantum Technologies Flagship initiative,

- Published: 2018-11-01
- Modified: 2025-10-05
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-policy/eu-quantum-technologies-flagship/
- Categories: Policy & Sovereignty, Industry
- Tags: Europe
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> Sign Today, Forge Tomorrow (STFT) or Trust Now, Forge Later (TNFL) is the digital‑signature equivalent of Harvest Now, Decrypt Later (HNDL)

- Published: 2018-10-06
- Modified: 2025-10-06
- URL: https://postquantum.com/post-quantum/sign-today-forge-sftf-tnfl/
- Categories: Post-Quantum, PQC, Quantum Security
Sign Today, Forge Tomorrow (STFT) or Trust Now, Forge Later (TNFL) is the digital‑signature equivalent of HNDL. Digital signatures underpin everything from software updates and firmware integrity to identity verification and supply‑chain provenance. Today’s signatures are based on RSA or ECDSA, which quantum computers will also break. When that happens, adversaries won’t just read secrets - they will forge signatures at will. The term Sign-Today-Forge-Tomorrow describes situations where the roots of trust are set at manufacture time and cannot be updated; once quantum computers exist, those signatures become meaningless. Hardware roots such as ePassports, industrial control systems and satellites often embed long‑lived keys; field updates may be impossible or incomplete

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> The most effective cybersecurity defense is a combination of AI to sort through data for human analysis, with that analysis feeding back

- Published: 2018-09-12
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/ai-security/ai-cybersecurity-battlefield/
- Categories: AI Security, Cyber-Kinetic Security
Cybersecurity strategies need to change in order to address the new issues that Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) bring into the equation. Although those issues have not yet reached crisis stage, signs are clear that they will need to be addressed – and soon – if cyberattackers are to be prevented from obtaining a decided advantage in the continuing arms race between hackers and those who keep organizations’ systems secure.

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> In quantum computing, the role of logic gates is played by quantum gates – unitary transformations on one or more qubits...

- Published: 2018-09-05
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/quantum-computing/quantum-gates/
- Categories: Quantum Computing
In quantum computing, the role of logic gates is played by quantum gates – unitary transformations on one or more qubits. These are the elementary “moves” that a quantum computer can perform on quantum data. Just as classical gates compose to implement arbitrary Boolean functions, quantum gates compose to implement arbitrary unitary operations. However, quantum gates have striking differences from classical ones: they are reversible (all quantum gates correspond to invertible unitary matrices), they can create superposition and entanglement, and there are infinitely many possible single-qubit gates (since a qubit’s state is a continuous point on the Bloch sphere).

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> Cybersecuring railway systems from potential attackers must become paramount in the digitization that those systems currently undergo.

- Published: 2018-08-02
- Modified: 2025-09-04
- URL: https://postquantum.com/cyber-kinetic-security/cyber-kinetic-railway-systems/
- Categories: Cyber-Kinetic Security
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> To remain competitive, organizations will increasingly have to innovate. As the speed of innovation increases...

- Published: 2018-08-02
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/ch8-driving-change-innovators/
- Categories: Leadership
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> It’s almost impossible to turn around nowadays without finding another article predicting the impact that AI...

- Published: 2018-07-31
- Modified: 2025-09-10
- URL: https://postquantum.com/leadership/ch1-introduction/
- Categories: Leadership
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